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210 Cards in this Set

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What is the study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another?
Anatomy
What concerns the function of the body, how the body parts work and carry out their life sustaining activities?
Physiology
-Surface Anatomy
-Regional Anatomy
-Systemic Anatomy
-Developmental Anatomy
Gross Anatomy
Large Structures you can see with your eyes.
-Cytology
-Histology
Microscopic Anatomy
Small Structures you can only see with the use of a microscope.
The study of internal structures as they relate to the overlying skin surface.
Surface Anatomy
All the structures (muscles, bones, blood vessels, nerves, etc) in a particular region of the body.
Regional Anatomy
Body structure is studied system by system.
Systemic Anatomy
Traces structural changes that occur in the body throughout the life span.
Developmental Anatomy
The study of the cells of the body.
Cytology
The study of Tissues.
Histology
Topics of Physiology
Integumentary System (Skin)
Nervous System
Skeletal System
Endocrine System
Muscular System
Cardiovascular System
Lymphatic System
Urinary System
Respiratory System
Digestive System
Reproductive System
11 Topics
Levels of Structural Organization
Chemical
Cellular
Tissue
Organ
Organ System
Organismal
6 Levels
Atoms combine together to form molecules.
Chemical Level
Simplist
Molecules combine together to form cells.
Cellular Level
Smallest unit of any living thing.
Cell
Cells combine together for a common function.
Tissue Level
Tissues combine in different amounts for a common function.
Organ Level
How many different tissues does it take to form an organ?
2 - But most organs have all four.
Organs come together for a common function.
Organ System Level
Sum total of all structural levels working together to promote life.
Organismal Level
Name the 8 Necessary Life Functions.
Maintaining Boundaries
Movement
Responsiveness or Irritability
Digestion
Metabolism
Excretion
Reproduction
Growth
Every living organism must do this so that its internal environment (inside) remains distinct from the external environment surrounding it (outside).
Maintaining Boundaries
Includes the activities promoted by the muscular system, such as propelling ourselves from one place to another by running or swimming, and manipulating the external environment with our nimble fingers.
Movement
The ability to sense changes (stimuli) in the environment and then respond to them.
Responsiveness
The breaking down of ingested foodstuffs to simple molecules that can be absorbed into the blood.
Digestion
Includes all chemical reactions that occur within body cells.
Metabolism
Process of removing excreta (or wastes) from the body.
Excretion
Cell divides, producing two identical daughter cells that may then be used for body growth or repair.
Reproduction
An increase in size of a body part or the organism.
Growth
Name the 5 Survival Needs
Nutrients
Oxygen
Water
Normal Body Temperature
Atmospheric Pressure
Contain the chemical substances used for energy and cell building.
Nutrients
All chemical reactions that release energy from food require this.
Oxygen
Accounts for 60-80% of body weight, and is single most abundant chemical substance in the body.
Water
Chemical Reactions need this to continue at life sustaining rates.
Normal Body Tempature
Force that air exerts on the surface of the body.
Atmospheric Pressure
The ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though the outside world changes continuously.
Homeostasis
3 Components of Homesostasis
Receptor
Control Center
Effector
Type of Sensor that monitors the environment and responds to changes, called stimuli, by sending information (input) to the second component, the control center.
Receptor
How your body knows something has changed.
Determines the set point (the level or range at which a variable is to be maintained).
Control Center
Holds a set point and contains all the plans to be carried out.
Provides the means for the control center's response.
Effector
Organs that affect the change.
The output shuts off the original stimulus or reduces its intensity.
Negative Feedback Mechanism
Causes the variable to change in an Opposite Direction to that of the initial change.
Enhances the original stimulus so that the activity (output) is accelerated.
Positive Feedback Mechanism
The change that occurs proceeds in the same direction as the initial disturbance.
Example of Negative Feedback System
Thermostat is set at 20 C (Control Center). Temperature drops to 18 C outside, and thermometer (receptor) sends input to Thermostat. Control center initiates plan (heater must be turned up). Control center sends plan to heater (effector), and heater turns on until 20 C is reached in the house. Cycle repeats continuously.
Why can Positive Feedback be bad?
After your body is overworked, (sweating and everything starts to breakdown) Negative feedback that has been trying to maintain Homeostasis will just stop. This will enforce Positive Feedback to start working, and your body will just continue to get hotter and hotter. (Destructive Factors keep happening)
Most diseases can be regarded as a result of this.
Negative feedback mechanisms are overwhelmed and destructive positive feedback mechanisms.
Homeostatic Imbalance
Standing upright, head facing forward, feet in normal stance, palms facing anteriorly and thumbs outward.
Anatomical Position
Toward the head
Superior
Away from the head
Inferior
Toward the front of the body
Anterior
Toward the back of the body
Posterior
Toward the midline
Medial
Away from the midline
Lateral
Between a medial and lateral structure
Intermediate
Not used very often
Toward the trunk
Proximal
Away from the trunk
Distal
Toward the surface of the body
Superficial
Away from the surface of the body
Deep
2 Primary regions of the Body
Axial Region
Appendicular Region
Head, Neck, and Trunk
Axial Region
Does not include shoulders, or anywhere limbs attach.
Limbs
Appendicular Region
3 Types of Cardinal Planes
Frontal
Sagittal
Transverse
Divide Body
Cuts in middle to divide into anterior and posterior halves.
Frontal (Coronal) Plane
Unequal right and left halves
Sagittal Plane
Equal right and left halves
Median or Midsagittal Plane
Cuts body to make top and bottom halves
Transverse Plane
CT Scan uses this
Internal chambers that hold vital organs.
Body Cavities
Protect Vital Organs
2 Main Body Cavities
Dorsal Body Cavity
Ventral Body Cavity
Protects the fragile nervous system organs.
Dorsal Body Cavity
Cranial Cavity and Spinal Cavity; Most Protective; Boney Structures
The more anterior and larger of the closed body cavities.
Ventral Body Cavity
Thoracic cavity and abdominopelvic cavity.
Surrounded by the ribs and muscles of the chest.
Thoracic Cavitiy
Subdivision of Ventral Body Cavity
Dome-Shaped muscle important in breathing.
Diaphragm
Contains the stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, and other organs.
Abdominal Cavity
Subdivision of Ventral Body Cavity
Contains pelvic area
Pelvic Cavity
Building block of all matter
Atom
Subatomic particles of an atom
Protons
Neutrons
Electrons
A chemical structure consisting of atoms held together by chemical bonds.
Molecule
2 or more atoms chemically bonded
A chemical substance composed of two or more different kinds of atoms.
Compound
8 or more DIFFERENT atoms chemically bonded together.
Substances composed of two or more components physically intermixed.
Mixtures
Physically mixed, not chemically mixed. (Sand and Water)
No Chemical Reaction needed to separate, and not chemically bonded.
Anything that occupies space and has mass.
Matter
Any chemical reaction in the human body.
Metabolism
Confused with digestion.

Capture, Storage, and Release of energy.
Capacity to perform work.
Movement of an object or change in its physical structure.
Energy
Work
Two Forms of Energy
Kinetic Energy
Potential Energy
Energy Currency of the Body
ATP
Energy in Action
Kinetic Energy
Ball Rolling down a hill
Stored energy, that is, inactive energy that has the capability to do work but is not currently doing so.
Potential Energy
Ball sitting on top of a hill.
Bi product of potential energy changing into kinetic energy.
Heat
60% is given off as this, 40% is able to perform work.
Storage of energy
Fat
4 Types of Energy
Chemical Energy
Electrical Energy
Mechanical Energy
Radiant Energy

The form of energy stored in the bonds of chemical substances.
Chemical Energy
Potential energy is unleashed, and becomes kinetic energy.
Results from the movement of charged particles.
Electrical Energy
Sends messages from brain to muscles.
Nervous System
Energy directly involved in moving matter
Mechanical Energy
Movement we use everyday.
(Walking)
Energy that travels in waves
Radiant Energy
Used to expel heat from the body.
(Homeostasis)
Reactions of Metabolism
Decomposition (AKA Catabolic)
Syntheses (AKA Anabolic)
Exchange
When atoms or molecules combine to form a larger, more complex molecule.

A + B → AB
Synthesis (AKA Anabolic)
Constructive Process
Occurs when a molecule is broken down into smaller molecules.

AB → A + B
Decomposition (AKA Catabolic)
Break large bonds to form small ones.
Involves bonds that are both made and broken.

AB + C → AC + B and
AB + CD → AD + CB
Exchange
Rearranging the order; neither losing or gaining anything.
Rules of Reactions
All reactions are theoretically reversible.
At equilibrium the rates of two opposing reactions are in balance.

Anabolism ↔ Catabolism

Being out of Equilibrium can cause problems.
Technically can be done, but will be difficult.

Factors affecting the rate of chemical reactions.
Temperature
Concentration
Particle Size
Catalysts
Significance of temperature in relation to chemical reactions
Increasing the temperature of a substance increases the kinetic energy of its particles and the force of their collisions. Therefore, chemical reactions proceed quicker at higher temperatures.
Increase temp = Increase Reactions
Significance of concentration in relation to chemical reactions.
Chemical reactions progress most rapidly when the reacting particles are present in high numbers, because the chance of successful collisions is greater. As the concentration of the reactants declines, chemical equilibrium eventually occurs unless additional reactants are added or products are removed from the reaction site.
Higher number of molecules, the faster they will collide.
Significance of particle size in relation to chemical reactions.
Smaller particles move faster than larger ones (at the same temperature) and tend to collide more frequently and more forcefully. Therefore, the smaller the reacting particles, the faster a chemical reaction goes at a given temperature and concentration.
Smaller they are, the more likely they are going to bump into something.
Significance of catalysts in relation to chemical reactions.
Catalysts increase the rate of chemical reactions without themselves becoming chemically changed or part of the product.
Cell Theory
* The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in living things.

* All cells come from pre-existing cells by division.

*Energy flow occurs within cells.

*Cells contain hereditary information which is passed from cell to cell during cell division

* All cells are basically the same in chemical composition.

*All known living things are made up of cells.

*Some organisms are unicellular, made up of only one cell. Others are multicellular.
This is why we are able to talk about cells in a generic form, even though there are over 200 types in the human body.
Exceptions to Cell Theory
1. Viruses are considered by some to be alive, yet they are not made up of cells.

2. The first cell did not originate from a preexisting cell.
3 Main Parts of Human Cells
1. Plasma Membrane
2. Cytoplasm
3. Nucleus
The extent of a cell, thereby separating two of the body's major fluid compartments - the intracellular fluid within cells and the extracellular fluid outside cells.
Plasma Membrane
Thin and Fragile
Picky - picks and chooses what comes in and what goes out.
AKA extracellular fluid
Interstitial Fluid
House Nutrients, among other things.
Depicts the plasma membrane as an exceedingly thin structure composed of a double layer, or bilayer, of lipid molecules with protein molecules dispersed in it.
Fluid Mosaic Model
The "fabric" of the membrane, which is constructed of phospholipids, with smaller amounts of cholesterol and glycolipids.
The lipid bilayer
Means "water loving"
Hydrophilic
Means "water hating"
hydrophobic
Made up of hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails.
Phospholipid Molecule
phospholipids with attached sugar groups, found only on the outer plasma membrane surface and account for about 5% of the total membrane lipid.
Glycolipids
Dynamic assemblies of saturated phospholipids associated with unique lipids called sphingolipids and lots of cholesterol.
Lipid Rafts
2 Distinct Membrane Proteins
1. Integral Proteins
2. Peripheral Proteins
Firmly inserted into the lipid bilayer. Some protrude from one membrane face only, but most are transmembrane proteins that span the entire width of the membrane and protrude on both sides.
Integral Proteins
Membrane Protein
Not embedded in the lipid. Instead, they attach rather loosely to integral proteins or membrane lipids and are easily removed without disrupting the membrane. Some are enzymes, and others are involved in mechanical functions, such as changing cell shape during cell division and muscle cell contraction, or linking cells together.
Peripheral Proteins
Membrane Protein
What binds cells together?
1. Glycoproteins in the glycocalyx act as an adhesive.

2. Wavy contours of the membranes of adjacent cells fit together in a tongue-and-groove fashion.

3. Special membrane junctions are formed.
3 Types of Membrane Junctions
1. Tight Junctions
2. Desomosomes
3. Gap Junctions
Series of Integral protein molecules in the plasma membranes of adjacent cells fuse together, forming an impermeable junction that encircles the cell.
Tight Junction
(Epithelial Tissue)
Anchoring Junctions - mechanical couplings scattered like rivets along the sides of abutting cells that prevent their separation.
Desomosomes
Plaque (Outside) and Protein filaments bind it to an adjacent cell. (Skin, Muscles, Tendons - Great Mechanical Stress)
A communicating junction between adjacent cells. Plasma membranes are very close, and the cells are connected by hollow cylinders called connexons composed of transmembrane proteins.
Gap Junction
Fast Communication (Heart)
2 Methods of Membrane Transport
1. Passive
2. Active
Process by which substances cross the membrane without any energy input from the cell.
Passive Process
Just happens - no energy required
Process by which the cell provides the metabolic energy (ATP) needed to move substances across the membrane.
Active Process
Energy is Required
Passive Processes
1. Diffusion
2. Filtration
Going along or with the Concentration Gradient.
(No energy required)
3 Types of Diffusion
1. Simple Diffusion
2. Facilitated Diffusion
3. Osmosis
Nonpolar and lipid-soluble substances diffuse directly through the lipid bilayer.
Simple Diffusion
Process in which the transported substance either (1) binds to protein carriers in the membrane and is ferried across or (2) moves through water-filled protein channels.
Facilitated Diffusion
A transmembrane integral protein that shows specificity for molecules of a certain polar substance or class of substances that are too large to pass through membrane channels.
Carrier
Sugars and amino acids
Transmembrane proteins that serve to transport substances, usually ions or water, through aqueous channels from one side of the membrane to the other.
Channels
The diffusion of a solvent, such as water, through a selectively permeable membrane
Osmosis
When molecules are moving with the concentration gradient, they are flowing from ____ to ____ ground, and eventually they want to _____.
High:Low
Equal Out
The process that forces water and solutes through a membrane or capillary wall by fluid, or hydrostatic pressure.
Filtration
Not selective; only blood cells and protein molecules too large to pass through membrane pores are held back. (Nutrients and Waste)
The gradient for filtration is a ____ that pushes solute-containing fluid from a higher-pressure area to a lower-pressure area.
Pressure Gradient
Process in which a cell uses the bond energy (ATP) to move solutes across the membrane.
Active Process
2 Mechanisms of Active Transport
1. Active Transport
2. Vesicular Transport
Solute Pumps are used in this process to move solutes, most importantly ions (Na⁺, K⁺, and Ca²⁺), "uphill" against a concentration gradient. This requires ATP.
Active Transport
"Bailing a Boat" Example
Fighting against what wants to happen, but not stopping.
Energy comes directly from hydrolysis of ATP.
Primary Active Transport
Maintain concentration of Na⁺, using energy to achieve the primary goal.
Transport is driven indirectly by energy stored in ionic gradients created by the operation of the active transport pumps.
Secondary Active Transport
When Na⁺ is pumped, other substances get dragged along with it.
Large particles, macromolecules, and fluids are transported across plasma and intracellular membranes by this process.
Vesicular Transport
Energized by ATP.
Macromolecules are too large to transport across by themselves.
Moving substances from the cell interior to the extracellular space.
Exocytosis
"out of the cell"
Moving substances across the plasma membrane into the cell from the extracellular environment.
Endocytosis
"within the cell"
Membrane bound vesicles will bond to the cell, spit out the contents, and vesicle will become attached to the cell.
Process of Exocytosis
The substance to be taken in by the cell is progressively enclosed by an infolding portion of the plasma membrane, and then enters the cell by a vesicle.
Process of Endyocytosis
The cellular material between the plasma membrane and the nucleus.
Cytoplasm
Cell forming material
3 Major Elements of Cytoplasm
1. Cytosol
2. Cytoplasmic Organelles
3. Inclusions
Cytosol
The viscous, semi-transparent fluid in which the other cytoplasmic elements are suspended. Thick, egg white substance; Proteins, salts, sugars, and a variety of other solutes are dissolved in this substance.
Cytoplasmic Organelles
The metabolic machinery of the cell; "little organs" that do all the work.
Inclusions
Chemical substances that may or may not be present, depending on the cell type. Cells can exist with or without them.
Name the 8 Organelles
1. Nucleus
2. Endoplasmic Reticulum
3. Ribosomes
4. Golgi Complex
5. Lysosomes
6. Peroxisomes
7. Mitochondria
8. Centrioles
Nucleus
1. Control Center
2. Largest Organelle
3. It contains the instructions needed to build nearly all the body's proteins to be synthesized at any one time in response to signals acting on the cell.
4. Can be anuclear, mononuclear, or multinucleated.
5. Contains DNA and RNA
6. Surrounded by the nuclear envelope
Raw Products cannot function unless in the nucleus.
Nucleoplasm Includes:
Chromatin and Nucleoli
Contains everything within the nucleus.
Eventually makes Chromosomes
Chromatin
Nucleoli
Where Ribosomes are produced.
A double membrane barrier separated by a fluid-filled space. Includes the outer nuclear membrane, inner nuclear membrane, chromatin, and nucleolus.
Nuclear envelope
Nucleus-Chromatin
Composed of about 30% DNA, 60% Globular Histone Proteins, and 10%RNA chains.
Chromosomes.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
1. "Little Network within the Cytoplasm"
2. Interconnected channels called cisternae enclosed by a unit membrane.
2 Types of Endoplasmic Reticulum
1. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

2. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum.
Ribosomes are attached to this surface, and they manufacture all proteins secreted from cells. Also produce phospholipids, and synthesizes proteins that are either packaged from others or contained within.
Abundant in Protein Producing Cells.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
AKA "Membrane Factory"
Tubular in shape and no ribosomes attached.
Abundant in detoxifying cells.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
Tolerance - part is due to growth of this.
Fluid filled cavities (interconnected channels) of Endoplasmic Reticulum
Cisternae
Ribosomes
1. Dark staining granules (sandpaper like)
2. Composed of proteins and RNA called ribosomal RNA (65%, RProteins 35%)
3. Has a top half and a bottom half.
4. Can be attached or free flowing.
5. Function of ribosome depends on if it is membrane bound or not.
Golgi Complex
1. Small System of cisternae
2. Principle traffic director for cellular proteins.
3. Synthesize carbohydrates and finish protein and glycoprotein synthses.
4. Products include: lysosomes, portions of the plasma membrane, or secretory vesicles.
5. "Splice, Dice, and Slice" proteins, and package them into secretory vesicles (or sometimes called golgi vesicles)
Found in both plant and animal cells.
Shaped like five to eight deflated baloons.
Traffic director of the cell.
Secretory Vesicles that include Lysosomes
Migrate to plasma membrane and others become stored for later use. (Breast milk, etc.)
Spherical membranous organelles containing digestive enzymes.
Large and abundant in phagocytes.
Hydrolyze proteins, nucleic acids, complex carbohydrates, phospholipids, and other substrates.
Autophagy
Autolysis
Lysosmes
Bounded by a single unit membrane.
50 have been identified.
Produced by Golgi
Digest dead or useless cells.
Cells that dispose of invading bacteria and cell debris.
Phagocytes
Lysosomes work best in _____ conditions.
Acidic
Self digestion of the cell.
The basis for desirable destruction of cells.
Autolysis
Membranous sacs containing a variety of powerful enzymes, the most important of which are oxidases and catalases.
Peroxisomes
Use Molecular oxygen to detoxify harmful substances, including alcohol and foraldehyde. Also, most important, converts free radicals to hydrogen Peroxide.
Oxidases
4 Properties of Peroxisomes
1. Resemble Lysosomes but do not contain the same enzymes and are not produced by the Golgi complex.
2. General function is to use molecular oxygen to oxidize organic molecules, giving off Hydrogen Peroxide.
3. Neutralize free radicals and detoxify alcohol, other drugs and a variety of blood-borne toxins.
4. They also decompose fatty acids in to two carbon acetyl groups, which is used in the mitochondria for ATP.
Abundant in kidney and liver cells.
Replicate themselves.
Mitochondria
Powerhouse of cell, providing most of the ATP supply. They are rod or bean-shaped membranous organelles.
Enclosed by 2 membranes.
Uses Aerobic Respiration. (Get 15% more when Oxygen in converted in the mitochondria)
Contains mitochondrial DNA which is used to replicate mitochondria.
We are able to provide more factories for energy if needed
When metabolites are broken down and oxidized, some of the energy released is captured and used to attach phosphate groups to ADP molecules to form ATP.
Aerobic Cellular Respiration
Centrioles
Short cylindrical assembly of microtubles arranged in nine groups of three microtubles.

Play a role in cell division and they form the base for cilla and flagella.
Cilla
Whiplike structures on the surface of the cell that help to move substances in one direction.
Move substances across cell membrane.
Do not move the actual cell.
Resemble nose hairs.
Flagella
Single projection that is substantially longer than the cilla and are used for propulsion.
Sperm Cells
Not as numerous as Cilla.
Propels and moves the cell.
Cytoskeleton
Collection of protein filaments and cylinders that:
1. Determine the shape of the cell
2. Lend it structural support
3. Organize its contents
4. Move substances through the cell
5. Contribute to movements of the cell as a whole.
Like skeleton
Inclusions
2 Types
1. Stored Cellular products (Glycogen, pigment granules, fat particles)
2. Foreign bodies (Dust, viruses, intercellular bacteria.

Not enclosed in a unit membrane

Not essential to cell survival

Storage for nutrients wastes, and cell products.
2 major phases of the life cycle of a cell
Interphase and Cell Division
3 Phases of Interphase
G₁ Phase (First Gap Phase)
S Phase (Synthesis Phase)
G₂ Phase (Second Gap Phase)
The series of changes a cell goes through from the time it is formed until it reproduces.
Divides into 2 Daughter Cells
The cell life cycle
G₁ Phase (First Gap Phase)
Cell spends most of its functional life in this phase.

Cell synthesizes proteins, grows and carries out its preordained tasks for the body.

Cells accumulate the materials needed to replicate their DNA in the next phase.

Stimuli trigger cell division event.
Triggers for Synthesis Phase of Cell
1. To replace dead or dying cells

2. To produce more cells to enlarge the organism (growth and development)

3. Reproduction (increase number of unicellular organisms)

4. To reduce the surface volume ratio. (Want more surface available to volume of nutrients.)
S Phase (Synthesis Phase)
Cell makes duplicate copies of its centrioles and all of its DNA. Often referred to as DNA replication.
Allows 2 sets to be available to each daughter cell.

Without this phase, cell will not properly divide, and eventually will die.
G₂ Phase (Second Gap Phase)
Brief interval between DNA replication and cell division.

Cell finishes replicating its centrioles and synthesizes enzymes that control cell division.
Final Touches, Final Preparation before dividing.
2 Events of Mitotic Phase
1. Mitosis

2. Cytokinesis
Properties of Mitotic Phase
1. Cell replicates nucleus and then pinches in two.

2. Forms 2 Daughter Cells
4 Phases of Mitosis
1. Prophase

2. Metaphase

3. Anaphase

4. Telephase
Prophase
Chromosomes shorten and thicken.

Nuclear envelope disintegrates and releases chromosomes into the cytosol.

Centrioles begin to sprout spindle fibers.

Spindle fibers grow toward the chromosomes and attach at the kinetochore, which is the center of the chromosome.
Chromatins form chromosomes (little squiggles)

Spindle fibers tug at chromosomes, making them line up in center.
Metaphase
Chromosomes are aligned on the cells equator awaiting a signal that stimulates them to split.

Spindle fibers for the mitotic spindle

Long micro tubules attach to chromosomes while shorter micro tubules form the aster.
Chromosomes are in the center.

Asters are anchors for spindle fibers. (Prepare to split chromosomes)
Anaphase
An enzyme splits the chromosomes into two sister chromatids.

Spindle fibers shorten and the sister chromatids are drawn to opposite poles of the cell.
Split Chromosomes

Draw into the ends of the cell.

Exact Division of genetic info to each daughter cell.
Telephase
Chromatids cluster on each side of the cell.

Rough ER produces a new nuclear envelope that encircles the chromatids.

Chromatids uncoil and return to their original chromatin form.

Mitotic spindle breaks up

Each new nucleus forms nucleoi
Chromatids split up
Cytokinesis
Division of the cytoplasm into two cells.

Sometimes overlaps with the telephase.
Actual Dividing, continues until 2 separate cells are formed.
Free Flowing Ribosomes
Makes proteins
Membrane Bound Ribosomes
Synthesizes proteins destined to be incorporated inside the membrane or exported to be used in extracellular fluid.
Cell Mortality
There is a natural limit to how many times cells can divide

Biochemical errors accumulate during cell division and reproduction which eventually result in cell death.

Immortality of cancer cells shows there is a way to keep cells alive.

Cells can become immortal if transformed by infecting them with a virus (Cancer, HPV virus)

Cell death is part of normal development, and it is also important for regenerating tissues or bones after injury.
50 to 100 times before cell dies.

Important for cell division, repair and mending.
Cells Divide When:
They grow large enough to have enough cytoplasm to distribute their own 2 daughter cells.

They have replicated their DNA so they can give each daughter cell a duplicate set of genes.

They receive adequate supply of nutrients.

They are stimulated by growth factors.

Neighboring cells die, leaving space in the tissue to be occupied.
Cells cannot die without having enough DNA to replicate.

Growth Factors (major contributor) helps us to continue to grow taller and bigger from birth to mid twenties.
Anaphase
Anaphase
Early Prophase
Interphase
Interphase
Late Prophase
Telophase and cytokinesis
Telophase and cytokinesis
Early Prophase
Metaphase
Metaphase
Late Prophase