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79 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Plant Tropisms
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Growth in a particular direction in response to an external stimulus
Gravitropism - Response to gravity Phototropism - Response to light Thigmotropism - Response to touch Responses may be positive or negative |
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Early Experiments with Hormones
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Darwin and Darwin (1880) - Worked with canary grass coleoptiles. Responded to light when tip covered by transparent cap and when base covered with opaque shield but not when tip covered by opaque shield
Boysen and Jensen (1913) - Response when tip separated by gelatin (agar) block but not when separated by mica. "Substance" has to travel to have affect |
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Hormone (definition)
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A substance produced one place and is transferred and has an effect somewhere else (chemical messengers)
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Classic Hormones
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Auxins
Gibberellins Cytokinins Ethylene Abscisic Acid |
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Auxin
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Primary form is Indole Acetic Acid (IAA)
Growth stimulent Photo-, gravi-, thigmotropisms come about in response to auxin Regulate growth primarily by promoting cell elongation with some differentiation Produced in shoot apical tips, leaves, and seeds Moves from tip to bases (polar transport) Moves primarily through parenchyma cells surrounding vascular tissue Cell elongation, lateral bud dormancy, fruit development |
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Fritz Went Experiments
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Excised tip placed on agar block, auxin diffuses into agar block
Agar block with auxin stimulates growth (offset blocks cause curvature), causes cell elongation Phototropism is movement of auxin so that there is more auxin on the shady side of the plant to cause cell elongation on that side and bend towards light |
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Auxin Mechanism
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IAA stimulates H+ pumps in cell membrane
H+ pumps secrete H+ into cell wall, decreasing pH Acidifies cell wall which activates pH-dependent enzymes and breaks bonds between cellulose microfibrils Loosens cell which allows more water to enter and turgor pressure to expand cell |
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Gravitropism
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Root and shoot differential growth in response to gravity
Auxin in higher amounts on "lower" side of organ Roots: negative response (roots have positive response to gravity, auxin on lower side inhibits growth - upper side elongates and roots grown down towards gravity) Root caps contain amyloplasts (statoliths) containing starch grains Density causes movement through cytoplasm to lower part of cell (indicates gravity) |
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Apical Dominance
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Auxin production and transport from tip inhibits lateral bud growth
Pinching the tip releases buds for growth The actual mechanism is not simplistic: IAA may induce ethylene production which inhibits lateral bud growth. Cytokinins which move apically may actually be of greater importance (ratio of cytokinins to auxin) |
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Senescence
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Auxin travels down leaf petiole to parenchyma in stem- when leaf stops producing auxin, leaf tends to drop
Auxin prevents cells at base of petiole from breaking down Shorter days of fall, drought, or lack of nutrients cause lower auxin production "Senescence factor" stimulates cells to form ethylene which produces cellulase (an enzyme that breaks down cellulose) and pectinase Middle lamella digested causing cells to separate causing abscission |
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Giberellins
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Translocated in xylem and phloem
General class of compounds, at leaste 80 analogues Formed in young leaves, apical tips, embryo Effects bolting - can overcome dwarfing in some plants keeps areas of plant in juvenile form stimulates flowering in some plants affects fruit development stimulates germination of seeds cell division and elongation, fruit development |
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Difference between Auxin and Gibberellin
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Gibberellin controls elongation in mature regions of trees and shrubs, auxin regulates grass seedlings and herbs
Gibberellin stimulates cell division and elongation, auxin stimulates only cellular elongation Plants can tolerate high levels of gibberellin, not auxin Gibberellin can't affect roots, auxin can |
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Cytokinins
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Formed in roots
Translocated upward in xylem Often auxin/ cytokinin ratio important Effects Stimulates cell division Shoot and root differentiation Stimulates growth of lateral buds and leaf expansion Chloroplast development Delays leaf senescence |
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Abscisic Acid
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Seed maturation and stomatal function
May aid onset of seed dormancy Transported from leaves in phloem "Stress hormone" - effects help protect plant from unfavorable conditions Levels increase in cold, drought, etc. |
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Ethylene
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Gas - diffuses through tissues
Stimulates abscission and fruit ripening Fruit releases ethylene as ripens Involved in leaf abscission and flower senescence Primarily synthesized in response to stress |
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Photoperiodism
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Response of plants to length of day
Flowering is a photoperiodistic response Long-day Plants - flowers when night length less than critical period (flower in spring and early summer when days grow long) Short-day plant - flowers when uninterrupted darkness is longer than critical period (Chrysanthemum - more than 10-12 hours light keeps them from flowering) *Night more important than day Day-neutral plants - tend to flower independent of day length Long-short or short-long - A proper sequence is needed for flowering to begin Intermediate day plants - two critical periods - day length must be between them |
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Phytocrome System
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Plants can sense light both in quantity and quality
Plants respond to changes in light quality with different types of growth Much of sensing seems to come in the red part of the spectrum Red light (660nm) and far red light (700nm) can be differentiated Pigments that differentiate are called phytocrome system Phytocrome red B has an effect on seed germination and A doesn't Pfr also involved in chloroplast development |
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Dark Etiolation
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Plant lengthens out when grown in dark (etiolates) by reducing Pfr which prevents plant from abnormally elongating
Protective measure for plant growing in the shade |
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Florigen
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Florigen has been proposed as the hormone that triggers flowering
Never been isolated Critical period induction given to one part of the plant can trigger flowering in another part |
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Transplanting Herbaceous Plants
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Reduced cell elongation and photosynthesis (due to root injuring)
Loss of water absorbing region (root tip) (suberization occurs differently in different species) Hardening off - 4-6 days of favorable conditions, carbohydrate build-up Transplanting usually occurs after first true leaves appear, second transplanting 3-6 weeks after that Weather - cool, moist days best; shading can be done Suberization (suberin enters cell walls and prevents water loss from cells) - only will take in water at the tip once suberized (suberin only at base of root) Some plants recover very slowly from transplanting because root tips injured and therefore cannot take in water at the tips (after become suberized) |
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Peat Pots
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Reduce transplant shock
Don't have to transplant, can put pot in soil, roots go though Slows down root process |
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Balled and Burlapped Plants
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Have to cut roots to compact into burlap sac
Burlapped to continue to keep in moist soil (due to constant transpiration of the evergreen) Put in hole 6-12 inches deeper than plant going to go (add soil and firmly pack down) Want firm soil to prevent plant from sinking in softer soil - soil around burlap should have compost but not fertilizer (will burn already established roots) Form ridge of soil around tree to keep water puddled over roots Add mulch 3-4 inches around stem (not up against it though) - keeps soil moist, reduces weeds, protects from lawn mower |
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Container Plants
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Watch out for pot bound plants (roots matted) - if pot bound, break roots apart and cut through some roots
Dig the hole deeper than wide (twice width container, a foot deeper) Add compost and perhaps bone and blood meal to the topsoil (add Ca 2+ and N - organic, mixes well) Check height with stake or shovel (don't want roots above ground level or too far below) Secure stakes (for first year at least) to prevent plant from moving and injuring roots - secure w/ something that won't hurt phloem |
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Bare Root Plants
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Come in dormant state with major roots cut with fiber around them to keep moist
Should put in soil as soon as possible (if need to take time to plant, should heel in - plant temporarily in a trench lightly covered with soil) After arrival, soak overnight but not over 24 hours (add soil to make mud bath, covers roots with layer of soil) Made mound of top soil in hole and plant in to spread roots out (work soil around/ between roots) Make sure growing plant is at top of soil Want to form ridge to keep water puddled over roots (also want mulch mound) |
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Grafting Terminology
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Grafting - taking vegetative material from one plant and attaching it to another
Scion - top part of the plant Stock - bottom part of the graft (the scion is put on the stock) Interstock - between scion and stock |
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Reasons for Grafting
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Unable to propagate from cuttings
Benefits of certain rootstocks (disease resistant, dwarfing or vigor - more crop per acre) Changing cultivars of established plants (new crop on established root) (Old cultivar no in demand, for pollination - need varieties for self-pollination, variety of fruits on one tree) Hastening growth of seedling selections (quicker to bearing stage, new varieties that are not vigorous on their own) To obtain specific forms of growth Repairing damaged parts of trees Winter hardiness (accumulate more carbohydrates) |
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Rootstocks (two groups)
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Seedling - quick and easy, inexpensive; increased genetic variation (disadvantage)
Clonal - used more in Europe, propagated by cuttings, layering, etc., keeps original characteristics, transfers any present diseases (disadvantage) |
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Graft Union Formation
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Cambium tissues in secure, intimate contact
Callus tissue formation at edge of cambial tissue Callus tissue differentiates into cambium (those cells in line with the cambium) Xylem and phloem produced |
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Callus Tissue
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Thin walled parenchyma (lose water rapidly - must be moist for successful grafting, susceptible to insect and disease attack)
Formation (most from stock tissue, arises from phloem parenchyma and immature xylem cells) |
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Factors Influencing Post-Grafting Healing
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Graft must be clean from disease and virus (dip equipment in fungicide)
Temperature and humidity proper for cell growth but not too warm (65-75ºF) -High temperature - scion buds can break (premature growth) <90º can damage; white wash can help Moist peat moss can help or wrapping Right time of year (not during peak of phloem flow) |
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Grafting Incompatibility
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Delayed incompatibility - forms union, then fails
Translocated incompatibility - causes phloem to break down Localized incompatiblity - interstock insertion can overcome |
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T-Budding
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Cut on stock is only through bark ( a vertical and horizontal line - hence "T") - cuts cambium
Slide bud material under phloem Wrap tightly with budding rubber or plastic wrap tape Once takes, cut off everything above to allow lateral growth (prevents auxin from affecting) Top of shield (bud) needs to match up with top of T-cut |
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Patch Budding
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Cut patch of bark away from scion (same size as patch bud from stock). Wrap bud with tape.
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Generalized Budding Methods
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Spring Budding (budwood collected when dormant)
-1 year top, 2 year root -T-buds inserted as growth begins in spring -Seedling cut back above bud two weeks later, plant dug in falls June Budding (1 year top and rootstock) -Same procedure, but less than full season growth Fall Budding (preferred method) -Seedlings grow through spring and summer, bud inserted between late july and early september -Seedlings cut back as growth begins in spring |
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Whip and Tongue Graft
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Take scion material and stock material and make cut with additional cut ("tongue") that fits together
Need to have wood that is fairly flexible and not a lot of pith (causes a soft center) Holds better, better cambial contact |
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Splice Graft
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Just a single diagonal cut
Done if wood has significant amount of pith Doesn't hold well Wax put over graft to prevent from drying out (in all grafting cases) |
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Side Graft
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Cut scion to form a short, smooth edge
Make a slanting cut into the stock Insert scion so that cuts on thicker side match the cambium of the stock Cover with wax Cut off the top of the stock only after growth begins Holds well |
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Saddle Graft
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Best done when dormant
Fairly flexible wood helps Stock and scion must be same size (<1 inch diameter) |
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Cleft Graft
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Much longer root stock and adding to it several scions
Scion needs to be properly aligned in the cleft Cut scion in pie shape because contact at edge, not in middle, matters (that's where the phloem is) No further growth from root stock Wood needs to be fairly flexible |
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Saw Kerf Graft
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Used for wood that doesn't split easily
Use saw to make some cuts into wood Cut slightly smaller than scion, tap scion into cut, and should hold scion in place Pie shape so outside where cambium is has the tightest fit |
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Bark Graft
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Cut section of bark out on rootstock, cut scion in a way to match this cut
Put scion where bark cut in, tac or nail used to hold (if bark easy to work with, just slide in slit versus cutting out whole section) Has to be done after active growth has started Subject to wind Stake for extra support |
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Bridge Graft
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For repairing injured stock
Best done in spring Put scion material around stem Wedge on both sides of scion, can tac scion in, but preferable to slip at least somewhat under bark Polarity key - needs to be right side up |
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Banana or Four Flap Graft
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Cut bark in four so it can be peeled back - cut off exposed wood and insert scion, then pull bark back
Usually needs to be staked due to susceptibility to wind Takes about a year for plant to be strong enough to hold without stake |
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Grafting depends on...
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Flexibility of wood
Size of stock Type of Bark Goal: Greatest amount of cambial contact (tongue method best if possible) |
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Purpose of pruning
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Maintenance pruning (enhance ornamental value, heading back, removing some basal shoots - lower shoots/ branches)
For reconditioning (removing old, diseased wood, thin sucker growth - long thin internodes - typically not very productive in terms of fruit trees) For plant health (remove dead and diseased branches; spindly growth) Safety (Low branches; weak or broken branches; spindly growth) Ornamental value (enhance multi-stemmed shrubs that flower on young wood, develop strong balanced canopy) Control Size Produce Unusual Forms |
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Effect of Pruning
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Root-shoot ratio: More roots than shoots, pushes toward vegetative growth
Amount of growth influenced by timing of pruning (winter - pushes toward vegetative, summer most effective) Form changed (often take terminal bud, encourages lateral growth) Loss of buds - what buds are you losing? Vegetative or floral? Plants that flower in spring produce flower buds in fall, want to prune after flowers to prevent pruning floral buds |
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Hedges
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Want to trim so base is wider than top so top doesn't shade the rest of the plant
Hand trimmers recommended to leave branches at different lengths (all one length kills all terminal buds, makes thick lateral branches preventing sun inside, kills inner buds) |
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Fruit vs. Growth
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Heavy reconditioning (especially in winter) causes rapid growth the following year
Remove upright "suckers" Scaffold branches - want spiral ladder like branches up the tree - 8-12 inches between branches on fruit tree is good distance, up to 2 feet on "street" trees Central leader - main trunk, branches come off Modified leader - pruned off top of main trunk, not straight up (slows down growth, allows wood to grow stronger) Open leader - cut off center and allowed side branches to grow up (peaches, plums, etc.) When pruning fruit tree, watch for "spurs" - small branches, fruit producing part of the plant Also watch for drooping branches, want to prune those Want wood with wide trunk - not narrow (will grow up and cause potential split during storm) |
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Pome Fruiting Habit
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3 year pattern for developing spurs (first year - branch, second year - produce spurs, third year - fruit)
Thicker stems of same age group produce the most fruit Spurs produce fruit one year and are vegetative one year (want to take off some young fruit each year to keep spur in the reproductive state) |
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Taking Off Branches
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Do three cuts
1). From bottom going up 2). From top down, further up the branch (when falls doesn't rip bark down tree, leaves stub) 3). Cut off stub (when cutting, make sure to leave branch collar or cut won't heal properly, don't leave stub either, also won't heal) Want to pick a branch with a bud next to it. Make sure not to cut below bud, but cut near bud or bud will die |
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Vegetable Gardens - Plant Supports
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Tomato supports (spirals, cages)
Keeps them upwards, gets them more sun, keeps food off ground New variety of tomato stakes - forms a "V", don't have to tie plants Spring trellis - Cucumber trellis - climbing vines allow good light to the leaves and keeps the fruit off the ground; increases productivity. Disadvantage: Shading, forms wall as vines grow up Bean tower - rectangular tower (wire) Raised beds - good for wet soil, drains well; also contained, easier to maintain and weed Border gardens Plastic mulch - keeps down evaporation, prevents weed growth, warms the soil by trapping heat |
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Intercropping
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Make use of all the space available - grow rows of quick maturing crops between those that take longer to grow
Examples: Sow radish with parsnips, lettuce between rows of peas Can "confuse" insects with odors given off |
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Rotating the Garden
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Allows areas of soil to recover and gain nutrients
Slows insect and disease infestation |
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House Plants - Light
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Bloomers usually need full light part of the day
Foliage plants do well in North or East window Incandescent lights provide far red light, causing shift to red and long, lanky looking plants Fluorescent lights provide red and therefore shift phytocrome far red and provide a more stunted growth Some ivy's do well away from any direct light (also some orchids) |
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House Plants - Potting
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Want to mix heavy and light soil (ex 2:1:1 soil: sand: peat) to keep pot from tipping under weight of plant
Fertility less important than structure of soil (can fertilize to make up for lack of fertility) Want pots to be clean, leftover salts can hurt the plant Plastic pots don't breath as well - don't dry out quickly If plant in a pot without drainage, put 2-3 inches gravel in the bottom to collect water that drains through soil (best to plant in pot with drainage) |
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House Plants - Repotting
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Need to beware of roots spiraled around
Want to replant in pot about 2 inches larger for fast growing plants, 1 inch larger for slow growing Roots should not hit outside of pot After repotting, want to water heavily to let soil settle |
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House Plants - Watering
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Overwatering - one of greatest causes of death
Water until water drains out below, leave until soil dry 1/2" below surface, some plants like being kept evenly moist (clay pot within pot surrounded by sphagnum is one helpful trick) If soil pulls away from side - bottom water (soil pulls away when extremely dry - needs to be placed in water to allow water to wick up the pot and allow the soil to expand) Water less during the winter Wick pots - have reservoir at the bottom that you fill with water and wick carries water up through soil |
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House Plants - Humidity and temperature
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Winter problem particularly - plants like moisture, winter air very dry
Room placement - kitchen, bathroom - humidity high Spray bottle (limited, evaporates quickly) Place on saucer of pebbles with water added - water evaporates and increases humidity around plant Groupings of plants increase humidity Most plants do well at 55 to 65ºF Cool at night |
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House Plants - Leaf Care
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Smooth, strong leaves
-Sponge with luke-warm water and mild soap suds once per month -May be inverted and immersed in tepid, soapy water -Avoid wet leaves in sun or late in day Hairy Leaves -Best to brush for grime and dust -Water held in hair - magnifies light Don't wash off filmy-waxy coating on succulents Dust blocks light and can clog pores (stomata) |
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House Plants - Fertilization
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Powders can be mixed with soil, but care needs to be taken - washes through when watering
Osmocote - beads for time release - releases fertilizer each time plant watered Liquid fertilizer - mix powder with water and water with that Don't fertilize too much in winter unless: winter blooming plants or artificial light is added Low nitrogen, high phosphorous for flowering plants |
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Pest Damage
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Stop function of plant (photosynthesis)
Hurt plant mechanically (Strength of stem) Destroy the fruit Biters - Stem and leaf, root, stem borers, fruit feeders Suckers - mites, aphids, leaf hoppers, mealy bugs - suck juices our of cell by attacking single cell or vascular tissue |
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Types of Insects
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Thrips - very small, rasping mouth parts (and piercing)
White Flies - Sprays can kill adults, not eggs, need to spray in sequence - common in home and green house Mealy bugs - Sucking insects, get down into leaf axil (white cotton looking mass) Spider mites - Reproduce in warm weather, yellow dots appear where mites have sucked juices out of cell, form webbing on leaf, like warm, dry conditions Aphids - suck phloem, stick into phloem and use pressure in phloem to get food, pressure overfills aphids and they exert sugars once full, ants carry them for food (carry from place to place) Leaf hoppers - Also sucking insect, pests more often found under leaf than above it Squash bugs - sucking insects, when pierce it, allow other things to get in (bacteria or fungus), want to check plant daily and crush eggs/ adults Japanese Beetle - Came from south, larval stage live in the soil and feed on the roots, adult is a chewing insect that chew on leaves, seem to like the rose family |
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Pest Controls
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Variety selection - varieties have been developed that are less susceptible to insects
Mechanical - Netting, rope cover, metal loops around plant Sanitation - cultivation (turning soil), remove plant residue, rotation (move growth location), pruning and thinning (gives more air and more light) Chemical |
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Bacterial Lifecycle
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Host, bacteria enters host, period of infection, period of disease,
Warm, wet weather late in growing season can often cause reinfection Harvest infected plants early or use fungicide to prevent spreading |
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Plant diseases
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Bean blight - Bacteria usually travels through xylem/ phloem, best way to control is to assure a disease-free seed, open wounds allow bacteria to enter plant vascular tissue
Powdery Mildew Cucumber Mosaic Virus - Affects a number of important vegetables and ornamentals including tomato, pepper, cucumber, and melons; viruses very difficult to contain, cut away infected parts/ get rid of infected plants, often transferred by sucking insects Tomato Ring-spot Virus Nematodes - Few effective management options, adequate soil moisture and fertilization help reduce losses, good weed control important because many survive/ reproduce on weeds, some damage roots, others foliage, get inside plants, very difficult to control, found in soil (soil often treated with chemicals), crop rotation also helps |
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Biological Controls
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Beneficial insects
-In 1888 the USDA imported lady beetles and a parasitic fly to fight cottony cushion scale which has come to California from Australia -Parasitic wasps are used to prey on larvae -Beneficial nematodes feed on ants, termites and the larval and grub stages of various beetles |
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Sex attractants (pheromones)
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Used against the gypsy moth, Japanese beetles, etc.
Lure to a trap or confuse the males as they search for a mate Some pheromones are used to summon predators Attracts insects - don't want to place traps near the garden |
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Juvenile Hormones
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Keep the larvae in the juvenile state longer so that they don't mature and breed
Hormones may speed up the maturing process so that the insect changes to the adult form quickly (it does not have proper sexual development and therefore cannot breed) |
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Sterilization Programs
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Screw worm fly (a serious cattle pest) - sterile males release
Mediterranean fruit fly - problems come when some of the flies released are not actually sterile |
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Integrated Pest Management
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Looks at a number of ways to control pests in a way that is least damaging to the environment
Moves from left to right in column (cultural controls, biological controls, mechanical and physical controls, chemical controls) The key is the monitoring process, put out traps (sticky card) to collect insects to see what "level" at Different treatments for different levels, no chemicals until very high levels Methods are as pest-specific as possible A decision maker is required who is a specialist in his/her field |
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Soil pest treatments
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Heat - 180ºF for 30 minutes, kills bacteria, nematodes, insects, most weeds
-140ºF for 30 minutes, kills pathogens but leaves antagonistic beneficial organisms and avoids toxicity problems Fumigants Fungicidal soil drenches |
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Home Landscape
Trees and Shrubs |
Aesthetic Value - pleasing from the street, from inside home, from neighbor's
Functional value - block utility areas and bare foundations, save energy (shade tree would block sun in summer, wind block in winter), screen private areas, reduce lawn size, attract wildlife (birds, butterflies) |
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Trees Near Buildings
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No branch or foliage should touch the house (damages house)
Should not obstruct views from windows Older plantings may need pruning or removal Avoid over-planting (landscapers will often over-plant because want nice looking yard now - don't leave room for expansion and growth) |
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Trees/ Shrubs in the Lawn
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Don't want grass right up to base to prevent competition (most tree feeder roots are in top 12-18 inches of soil) and damaging with lawnmower
Grass free ring 3 feet diameter for small trees and shrubs, 6 for larger mature plants (mulch) Cover with 3-4 inches mulch or less competitive ground cover (vinca pachysandra) Use woven fabric underneath mulch (weed-x); water goes through, weeds don't |
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High Maintenance Trees
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Need frequent pruning, feeding, spraying
Tend to drop many leaves, seeds, twigs Brittle and lose small branches in wind storms Ex. Fruit trees, weeping willows, fast-growing trees |
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Fertilizing Lawn Trees
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Benefit from slow release granular fertilizer spread over 1 1/2 the size of the drip line
Use 1/2 lb fertilizer for each 1/2 in. dbh (diameter breast height) of trunk Use fertilizer with a ratio of 3-1-2 or 3-1-1 (more nitrogen, pushes toward growth - more phosphorous for fruit trees) |
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Home landscapes
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Need to think of different rooms with walls, floors
Each "room" has a function Three areas - public area, service area, private living area Usually want to fence off service area (and should consider while making placement options) Want to plan based on color, size, function Need to consider if it will be easy to maintain (water usage, etc.) Are species choices proper for your area? Climate, soil, sunlight, etc. Complex borders harder to maintain (want more curved than straight lines) Symmetric vs. asymmetric - choice Want to pick focal points and want landscaping to lead eye there Variety of colors, sizes, textures Plan ornamental interest all year long Screen for privacy/ divide or separate Can use plants to fill in space versus lawn - less maintenance Don't have to mow, less water usage, hedges have to be trimmed however |
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Trees as Wind Barriers
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Wind currents tend to go over trees then slow down
Want to plant far enough away so slowed currents still there but not too close (will drop snow in snow storm, etc.) Want trees about 100 feet away |
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Lawn Care
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Water
Mow Fertilize - "feeding the grass" = store bought fertilizer, "feeding the soil" = organic fertilizer Should cut grass 3-3 1/2 inches - gives enough photosynthesis to let roots grow strong Small portions of clippings left on grass can get into soil to help fertilize soil/grass Can build up thatch (dead material) - when more than 3/4 inch can cover too much |
