Holt Psychology Mansurian Midterm Chpt. 1-6

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Psychology

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The scientific study of behavior and mental processes

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Behavior

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Any action that people can observe and measure

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Cognitive Activities

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Private mental process, such as thoughts and memories

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Survey

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A research method in which psychologists collect data by asking questions of people in a particular group

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Theory

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A statement that attempts to explain why things are the way they are and happen the way they do

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Clinical Psychologist

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psychologist who focus on helping people who focus on helping people with psychological disorders like anxiety and depression

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Counseling Psychologist

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deals with people who have adjustment problems

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Educational Psychologists

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involved in preparing standardized tests

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Experimental Psychologist

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conducts research into basic processes (like perception)

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Environmental Psychologist

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studies the psychological effects of the environment on people's behavior

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Forensic Psychologist

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psychologist that works within the criminal justice system

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Socrates

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Greek who believed that people could learn about themselves through introspection

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Wilhelm Wundt

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individual who established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany

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Structuralism

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School of Psychology that is concerned with discovering the basic elements of conscious experience (WUNDT)

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Behaviorism

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School of Psychology that focuses on how mental processes help organisms adapt to their environment (John B. Watson)

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William James

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Psychologist who believed that experience is a fluid and continuous "stream of consciousness"

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Functionalism

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School of Psychology that maintains that organisms behave in certain ways because they are reinforced to do so

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B.F. Skinner

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introduced the concept of reinforcement

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Psychoanalysis

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School of Psychology that maintains that human behavior is determined by unconscious motives

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Biological

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perspective of psychology that emphasizes the influence of biology on behavior

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Humanistic

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perspective of psychology that stresses the influence of human consciousness, self-awareness, and the capacity to make choices

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Psychoanalytic

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Perspective of psychology that stresses the influence of unconscious forces on human behavior

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Learning

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Perspective of psychology that emphasizes the effects of experience on behavior

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Sociocultural

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Perspective of psychology that examines the effects of factors such as ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status on human behavior

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Hypothesis

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An educated guess (2nd in research process)

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Survey

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A series of questions about a particular subject

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Correlation

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A measure of how closely one thing is related to another; used for analyzing and interpreting observations

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Control Group

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The group in an experiment that does not receive treatment

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Ethics

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Standards for proper and responsible behavior

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1st step in research process

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Form a question

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2nd step in research process

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Form a hypothesis

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3rd step in research process

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Test the hypothesis

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4th step in research process

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Analyze the result

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5th step in research process

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Draw a conclusion

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6th step in research process

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Replication

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7th step in research process

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Ask a new question and repeat process

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Longitudinal Study

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To observe how individuals change over time

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Survey Method

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asking people directly to gather information

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Target Population

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people that represent the actual population

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Sample

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part of the target population

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Random Sample

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individuals chosen by chance from target population (everyone has an equal chance)

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Stratified Sample

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subgroups of population are represented proportionally in the sample

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Generalizing Results

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samples that do not represent an entire population (results are not true for everyone)

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Volunteer Bias

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people who want to be in a study have a different outlook than someone who does not volunteer

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Case Study Method

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an independent investigation of an individual or small group (Genie)

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Cross-sectional Method

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select a sample that includes people of different age groups

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Naturalistic Observation Method

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Observing subjects in their natural habitats (Meerkat Manor)

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Laboratory Observation Method

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observing subjects in a laboratory setting

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Positive Correlation

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if one goes up so does the other (study and good grades)

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Negative Correlation

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one goes down so does the other (stress and health)

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Independent Variable

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factor that researchers manipulate

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Dependent Variable

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factor that depends on indep. variable

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Experimental Group

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receives treatment

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Control Group

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does not receive treatment

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Placebo Effect

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a substance or treatment that has no effect apart from a person's belief in it

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Single Blind Study

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participant does not know whether they are experimental or control group

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Double Blind Study

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both participant and experimenter are unaware of who receives treatment

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Central Nervous System

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consists of the brain and spinal cord

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Somatic Nervous System

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part of peripheral nervous system that is activated by touch and pain

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Cerebrum

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largest part of the brain, controls functions such as thinking and memory

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Hormones

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substances in the body that stimulate growth

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Genes

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building blocks of heredity

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Dendrite

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carries messages to the neuron body

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Axon

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carries messages away from body

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Axon Terminal

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smaller fibers branching from axon

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Peripheral Nervous System

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lies outside the central nervous system and transmits messages between the central nervous system and the rest of the body

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Autonomic Nervous System

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regulates the body's vital functions

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Medulla (Hindbrain)

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vital functions

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Pons (Hindbrain)

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front of medulla, regulates movement, attention, sleep, and alertness

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Cerebellum (Hindbrain)

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balance and coordination

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Midbrain

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vision, hearing, reticular activating system-attention, sleep

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Thalamus (Forebrain)

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relay station for sensory stimulation

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Hypothalamus (Forebrain)

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behavior and psychological functions

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Limbic System (Forebrain)

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learning, memory, emotion, hunger, sex, aggression

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Cerebral Cortex

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Left and right side (hemisphere)

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Corpus Callosum

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connects both hemispheres

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Endocrine System

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glands that secrete hormones

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Pituitary Gland/ Master Gland

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size of a pea, regulates growth

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Thyroid Gland

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regulates metabolism, secretes thyroxin

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Adrenal Gland

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increases resistance to stress ad promotes muscle development

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Nature vs. Nurture

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What people inherit (genes) and How people grow up (environmental factors)

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Sensation vs. Perception

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sensation= stimulation of sensory receptors
perception= psychological process

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Absolute Threshold

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weakest amount of a stimulus that can be sensed

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Difference Threshold

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minimum amount of difference that can be detected between two stimuli

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Sensory Adaptation

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we become sensitive to weak stimuli and less sensitive to unchanging stimuli (reading a book at the beach)

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Lens

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Adjusts thickness to the distance of objects

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Rods vs. Cones

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Rods= black and white (light)
Cones= color

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Visual Acuity

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sharpness of vision

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Afterimages

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the complementary color of a color after it has been looked at

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4 Basics of Taste

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Sweetness, sourness, saltiness, and bitterness

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What does taste involve?

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temperature, flavor, texture, odor

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Gate Theory

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only a certain amount of info can be processed (like a gate)

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Vestibular Sense

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enables you to keep your balance

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Kinesthesis

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sense that informs people about the position and motion of their bodies

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Closure

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filling in the blanks

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Stroboscopic Motion

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illusion of movement produced by the rapid progression of images that are not moving (like a post-it note drawing)

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Figure Ground

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contrast between backgrounds

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Pitch

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determined by the frequency of sound waves

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Loudness

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determined by the amplitude of sound waves

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Perceptual Constancy

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causes visual illusions (the dolphin)

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Auditory Nerve

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transmits neural impulses from the inner ear to the brain

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Perception reflects 3 factors

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1) experiences
2) expectations
3) attitudes

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Preconscious

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level of consciousness at which information can be recalled

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Insomnia

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Inability to sleep

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Hypnosis

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altered state of consciousness where people respond to suggestions and behave as though they are in a trance

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Depressants

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type of drug which slows down the activity of the nervous system

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Stimulants

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type of drugs that increase the activity of the nervous system

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Direct Inner Awareness

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imagining a situation (jumping into a pool)--not real

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Unconscious Level (Subconscious)

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things that you can recall later if you need to (what you had for lunch)

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Non-conscious Level

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things you can't feel even if you tried (feeling your nails grow)

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Cicardian Rhythms (Biological Clock)

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based on a 24 hour day, sleep-wake cycle

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Stages of sleep

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1, 2, 3, 4, 2, REM

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Freudian View of Dreams

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reveals a person's unconscious wishes and urges, people dream in symbols

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Biopsychological Approach

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dreams are random neuron bursts that the brain tries to make sense of

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Sleep Apnea

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interruptions of breathing during sleep

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Narcolepsy

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randomly falling asleep during the day

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Meditation

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narrowing of consciousness

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Biofeedback

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system that provides info. about something happening in the body

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Biofeedback Training

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control over certain body parts (heart rate)

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Narcotics

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Addictive depressants used to relieve pain and induce sleep (morphine, heroin)

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Amphetamines

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help people stay awake and reduce appetite (meth)

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Delusions vs. Hallucinations

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Delus.= false idea that seems real
Hallu.= perception of an object or sounds that seems real but is not

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Hallucinogens

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produce hallucinations

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Conditioning

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learning (pairing of different stimuli)

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Classical Condition

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simple form of learning

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Ivan Pavlov

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dog guy

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Unconditioned Stimulus

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causes reaction that was not learned

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Unconditioned Response

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unlearned automatic response

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Conditioned Stimuli

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learned stimulus that was previously meaningless

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Conditioned Response

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learned response

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Taste Aversion

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Learned distaste of a certain food

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Extinction

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when something happens so much (like rain) that you no longer respond to it

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Spontaneous Recovery

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when organisms display responses that were gone before (song)

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Generalization

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act of responding in the same way to similar stimuli (bunny and furry sock)

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Discrimination

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act of responding differently to stimuli that are not similar to each other (chocolate ice cream and chocolate pudding)

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Flooding

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exposing someone to a fearful stimuli until they no longer fear it

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Systematic Desensitization

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people are exposed little by little

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Counterconditioning

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pairing a pleasant stimulus with a fearful one

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Bell and Pad

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bed wetters slept on a pad that rings when it is filled, waking up the child

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Operant Conditioning

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learning to do certain things for their results (study=good grades)

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Reinforcement

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when a stimulus is given because it increases the chances that a behavior will occur again

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Primary Reinforcements

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function due to biological make up of the organism (food, water)

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Secondary Reinforcements

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must be learned (money, attention, social approval)

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Positive Reinforcement

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increase frequency of the behavior they follow when applied

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Negative Reinforcements

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increase the frequency of the behavior that follows when they are removed

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Partial Reinforcements

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behavior that is not reinforced every time it occurs

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Latent Learning

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learning that remains hidden until it is needed

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Observational Learning

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things you learn by watching

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Albert Bandura

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we acquire knowledge and skills by observing and imitating others

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PQ4R Method

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1) Preview 2) Question 3) Read 4) Reflect 5) Recite 6) Review