History Of Psychology Ch. 10 The Darwinian Influence And The Rise Of Mental Testing

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Adaptive features

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Those features that an organism possesses that allow it to survive and reproduce.

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Binet, Alfred

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(1857-1911) Found that following Galton's methods of measuring intelligence often resulted in falsely concluding that deaf and blind children had low intelligence. Binet attempted to measure directly the cognitive abilities he thought constituted intelligence.

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Binet-Simon scale of intelligence

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The scale Binet and Simon devised to directly measure the various cognitive abilities they believed intelligence comprised. The scale first appeared in 1905 and was revised in 1908 and in 1911.

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Burt, Cyril

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(1883-1971) Claimed that his studies of identical twins reared together and apart showed intelligence to be largely innate. Evidence suggested that Burt invented his data and a major scandal ensued.

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Cattell, James McKeen

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(1860-1944) Worked with Galton and developed a strong interest in measuring individual differences. Cattell brought Galton's methods of intelligence testing to the United States.

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Coefficient of correlation (r)

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A mathematical expression indicating the magnitude of correlation between two variables.

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Correlation

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Systematic variation between two variables.

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Darwin, Charles

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(1809-1882) Devised a theory of evolution that emphasized a struggle for survival that results in the natural selection of the most fit organisms. By showing the continuity between human and nonhuman animals, the importance of individual differences, and the importance of adaptive behavior, Darwin strongly influenced subsequent psychology.

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Eugenics

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The use of selective breeding to increase the general intelligence of the population.

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Evolutionary psychology

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A modern extension of Darwin's theory to the explanation of human and nonhuman social behavior (also called sociobiology).

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Factor analysis

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A complex statistical technique that involves analyzing correlations among measurements and attempting to explain the observed correlations by postulating various influences (factors).

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Fitness

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According to Darwin, an organism's ability to survive and reproduce.

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Galton, Francis

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(1822-1911) Influenced by his cousin, Charles Darwin, was keenly interested in the measurement of individual differences. Galton was convinced that intellectual ability is inherited and therefore recommended eugenics, or the selective breeding of humans. He was the first to attempt to systematically measure intelligence, to use a questionnaire to gather data, to use a word-association test, to study mental imagery, to define and use the concepts of correlation and median, and to systematically study twins.

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General intelligence (g)

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The aspect of intelligence that, according to Spearman, is largely inherited and coordinates specific intellectual abilities.

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Goddard, Henry Herbert

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(1866-1957) Translated Binet's intelligence test into English and used it to test and classify students with mental retardation. Goddard was an extreme nativist who recommended that those with mental deficiencies be sterilized or institutionalized. As a result of Goddard's efforts, the number of immigrants allowed into the United States was greatly reduced.

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Hollingworth, Leta Stetter

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(1886-1939) Rejected the belief, popular at the time, that women achieve less than males do because they are intellectually inferior to males; instead her explanation emphasized differences in social opportunity. Her career focused on improving the education of both subnormal and gifted students.

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Inclusive fitness

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The type of fitness that involves the survival and perpetuation of copies of one's genes into subsequent generations. With this expanded definition of fitness, one can be fit by helping his or her kin survive and reproduce as well as by producing one's own offspring.

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Inheritance of acquired characteristics

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Lamarck's contention that adaptive abilities developed during an organism's lifetime are passed on to the organism's offspring.

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Intelligence quotient

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(IQ) Stern's suggested procedure for quantifying intelligence. The intelligence quotient is calculated by dividing mental age by chronological age.

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Lamarck, Jean

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(1744-1829) Proposed that adaptive characteristics acquired during an organism's lifetime were inherited by that organism's offspring. This was the mechanism by which species were transformed. (See also Inheritance of acquired characteristics.)

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Malthus, Thomas

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(1766-1834) Economist who wrote Essay on the Principle of Population (1798), which provided Darwin with the principle he needed to explain the observations that he had made while aboard the Beagle. The principle stated that because more individuals are born than environmental resources can support, there is a struggle for survival and only the fittest survive.

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Mental age

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According to Stern, a composite score reflecting all the levels of the Binet-Simon test that a child could successfully pass.

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Mental orthopedics

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The exercises that Binet suggested for enhancing determination, attention, and discipline. These procedures would prepare a child for formal education.

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Natural selection

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A key concept in Darwin's theory of evolution. Because more members of a species are born than environmental resources can support, nature selects those with characteristics most conducive to survival under the circumstances, which allows them to reproduce.

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Nature-nurture controversy

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The debate over the extent to which important attributes are inherited or learned.

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Pearson, Karl

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(1857-1936) Devised the formula for calculating the coefficient of correlation.

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Regression toward the mean

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The tendency for extremes to become less extreme in one's offspring. For example, the offspring of extremely tall parents tend not to be as tall as the parents.

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Simon, Theodore

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(1873-1961) Collaborated with Binet to develop the first test designed to directly measure intelligence.

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Social Darwinism

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Spencer's contention that, if given freedom to compete in society, the ablest individuals will succeed, the weaker ones will fail, and this is as it should be.

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Sociobiology

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See Evolutionary psychology.

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Spearman, Charles

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(1863-1945) Using an early form of factor analysis, found that intelligence comprised specific factors (s) and general intelligence (g). He believed the latter to be largely inherited. (See also General intelligence.)

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Spencer, Herbert

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(1820-1903) First a follower of Lamarck, then of Darwin. Spencer applied Darwinian principles to society by saying that society should maintain a laissez-faire policy so that the ablest individuals could prevail. Spencer's position is called social Darwinism. (See also Social Darwinism.)

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Spencer-Bain principle

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The observation first made by Bain and later by Spencer that behavior resulting in pleasurable consequences tends to be repeated and behavior resulting in painful consequences tends not to be

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Stern, William

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(1871-1938) Coined the term mental age and suggested the intelligence quotient as a way of quantifying intelligence. (See also Intelligence quotient.)

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Struggle for survival

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The situation that arises when there are more offspring of a species than environmental resources can support.

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Survival of the fittest

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The notion that, in a struggle for limited resources, those organisms with traits conducive to survival under the circumstances will live and reproduce.

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Terman, Lewis Madison

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(1877-1956) Revised Binet's test of intelligence, making it more compatible with U.S. culture. Terman, along with Goddard and Yerkes, was instrumental in creating the Army Alpha and Army Beta tests. He also conducted a longitudinal study of gifted children and found that, contrary to the belief at the time, gifted children tended to become healthy, gifted adults.

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Wallace, Alfred Russel

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(1823-1913) Developed a theory of evolution almost identical to Darwin's, at almost the same time that Darwin developed his theory.

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Yerkes, Robert M.

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(1876-1956) Suggested that psychology could help in the war effort (World War I) by creating tests that could be used to place recruits according to their abilities and to screen the mentally unfit from military service. The testing program was largely ineffective and was discontinued soon after the war.