History Of Christianity 1 - Gonzalez Chapters 1-12

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1. Why was Palestine a land of strife and suffering?

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"Palestine, the land in which Christianity first appeared, has long been a land of strife and suffering. In ancient times, this was due mostly to its geographical position, at the crossroads of the great trades routes that joined Egypt with Mesopotamia, and Asia Minor with Arabia. As we read the Old Testament, we see that, as empires came and went, they cast a covetous eye on that narrow strip of land; for this reason, its inhabitants repeatedly suffered invasion, bondage, and exile. In the fourth century B.C., with Alexander and his Macedonian armies, a new contender entered the arena. Upon defeating the Persians, Alexander became master of Palestine. But his death followed shortly thereafter, and his vast empire was dismembered. For a long time two of the resulting dynasties, one in Egypt and one in Syria, fought for the possession of Palestine. The result was another period of unrest and political instability (p. 13)."

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2. Define Hellenism

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“The conquests of Alexander had an ideological basis. He did not wish simply to conquer the world, but to unite it by spreading the insights of Greek civilization. The result, in which some elements of Greek origin combined, in various forms and degrees, with other elements taken from conquered civilizations, is known as Hellenism (p.14)."

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3. How can the history of Palestine be seen from the time of Alexander’s conquest to the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70?

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“But there were many Jews who did not regard Hellenism as a blessing. Since part of the Hellenistic ideology consisted in equating and mixing the gods of different nations, they saw in it a threat to Israel’s faith in the One God. In a way, the history of Palestine from the time of Alexander’s conquest to the destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70 may be seen as the constant struggle between Hellenizing pressures on the one hand and Jewish faithfulness to their God and their traditions on the other” (p.14)."

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4. What family led the high point in the Jewish struggle against Hellenization? When was this high point?

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“The high point of that struggle was the Jewish rebellion led by the family known as the Maccabees, in the second century B.C.” (p.15)"

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5.Gonzalez listed four parties within first-century Judaism. What were they (16-17)?

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"Pharisees – “The best known, both because the Gospels refer to it repeatedly and because later Judaism evolved from it, is the party of the Pharisees. They were the party of the populace, who did not enjoy the material benefits of Roman rule and Hellenistic civilization . To them, it was important to be faithful to the Law, and for that reason they studied and debated how the Law was to be applied in every conceivable situation” (p.16)" "Sadducees – “Those more conservative Jews were the Sadducees. By and large, they belonged to the Jewish aristocracy, and they were conservative in both politics and religion. In matters of religion, their interest centered on the Temple, which they held with the support of the Romans, who in turn found their political conservatism much to their liking. They also rejected many of the doctrines of the Pharisees as unwarranted innovations” (p.16)." "The Zealots – “The radical or Zealot party, tenaciously opposed to Roman rule, continued unabated in spite of such atrocities, and played an important role in the great rebellion that broke out in A.D. 66” (p. 16)." "The Essenes – “an ascetic sect to which many attribute the Dead Sea Scrolls. This group, and probably others like it, sought to obey the Law by withdrawing from the rest of society, and often had a very intense expectation that the end was near” (p.17)."

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6. What were the two fundamental tenets of all first-century Jews (17)?

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“two fundamental tenets of all Jews: ethical monotheism and eschatological hope” (p.17).

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7. Which group was best-equipped to survive after the destruction of the Temple in AD 70 (17)?

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“Of all these groups, the best -equipped to survive after the destruction of the Temple was that of the Pharisees. Their roots went back to the time of the Exile, when it was not possible to worship in Jerusalem, and religious life perforce centered on the Law. The same was true in the first century of the millions of Jews who lived in distant lands. When the Temple was destroyed in A.D. 70, the Sadducees received a mortal blow, while the theological tradition of the Pharisees continued to bloom into modern Judaism” (p.17) "

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8. Define the Diaspora (17).

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“By the time of Jesus, there were sizable Jewish communities in every major city in the Roman Empire. These Jews, scattered far and wide, but with strong emotional and religious connections with the land of their ancestors, are called the “Diaspora” or “Dispersion” (p.17)."

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9. Why was Diaspora Judaism of crucial importance for the history of Christianity? What useful tool did it provide (18)?

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“Diaspora Judaism is of crucial importance for the history of Christianity, for it was one of the main avenues through which the new faith expanded throughout the Roman Empire. Furthermore, Diaspora Judaism unwittingly provided the church with one of the most useful tools of its missionary expansion, the Greek translation of the Old Testament” (p.18)."

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10. Who represented the high point in the attempt to show the compatibility between the ancient faith and Hellenism (19)?

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“the high point of this entire tradition was the work of Philo of Alexandria, a contemporary of Jesus who sought to show that the best of pagan philosophy agreed with the Hebrew Scriptures. He claimed that, since the Hebrew prophets antedated the Greek philosophers , the latter must have drawn from the wisdom of the former” (p.19)."

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11. How was the political unity afforded by the Roman Empire a benefit to Christianity (19-20)?

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“The political unity wrought by the Roman Empire allowed the early Christians to travel without having to fear bandits or local wars. When reading about Paul’s journeys, we see that the great threat to shipping at that time was bad weather. A few decades earlier, an encounter with pirates was much more to be feared than any storm. In the first century, well-paved and well-guarded roads ran to the most distant provinces. Since trade flourished, travel was constant; thus Christianity often reached a new region, not through the work of missionaries or preachers, but rather through traveling traders, slaves, and others. In that sense, the political circumstances favored the spread of Christianity” (p19-20)."

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12. In what two ways did imperial policy seek religious uniformity (20)?

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“In order to achieve greater unity, imperial policy sought religious uniformity by following two routes: religious syncretism— the indiscriminate mixing of elements from various religions— and emperor worship” (p.20)."

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13. What two philosophical traditions did Christians find particularly attractive and helpful for communicating their faith in the midst of Hellenistic culture (22)?

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“To communicate their faith in the midst of Hellenistic culture, Christians found two philosophical traditions particularly attractive and helpful: Platonism and Stoicism” (p.22)."

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14. What were three points of commonality between Platonism and Christianity (22)?

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“Socrates, Plato, and many other philosophers had criticized the ancient gods, and had taught about a supreme being, perfect and immutable. Furthermore, both Socrates and Plato believed in the immortality of the soul. And Plato affirmed that, far above this world of fleeting things, there was a higher world of abiding truth” (p.22)"

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15. What were three points of usefulness as Christianity sought to use Stoicism (23)?

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“Again, all this was very attractive to Christians, whose criticism of the religion and morals of the time was rarely well received. The church, which many Christians called a “new race” because it drew its members from all races, was living proof of the universal unity of humankind. The Stoic notion of natural law as the guide to wisdom was soon taken up by Christian apologists and moralists who argued that the Christian life was life according to that law. In response to prejudice, ridicule and even martyrdom, the Stoic ideal of apatheia called believers to steadfastness . And many of the arguments that Stoic philosophers had used against the gods were now taken up by Christians” (p.23)."

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1. Gonzalez points out that the conflict in Acts 6 is between which two groups within the church (25)?

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““These last words do not refer to a conflict between Jews and Gentiles, for Acts makes clear that at that time there were still no Gentiles in the church. It was rather a conflict between two groups of Jews, those who kept the customs and language of their ancestors, and those who showed more openness to Hellenistic influences. In Acts, the first are called “Hebrews,” and the others are the “Hellenists” (p.25)."

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2. On which days did Christians fast? Why did this shift from Jewish practice occur (27)?

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“There were indeed times set aside for sorrow for one’s sins. These were especially the two weekly days of fasting, which the church took from Jewish practice. At an early date, however, Christians began fasting, not on Mondays and Thursdays, like the Jews, but rather on Wednesdays and Fridays. It may be that this shift took place in commemoration of the betrayal and the crucifixion” (p.27)."

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3. Who were the three “pillars” of the Jerusalem church (28)?

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“Of the apostles, Peter and John seem to have been foremost, for Acts gives several indications of this, and they are two of the “pillars” to whom Paul refers in Galatians 2:9. The third such “pillar,” however, was not one of the twelve. He was James, the brother of the Lord. According to Paul (1 Cor. 15:7), the risen Jesus had appeared to James. Whether because of his blood ties with Jesus, or for some other reason, James soon became the leader of the church in Jerusalem” (p.28)."

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4. Who ordered the death of James the brother of John (28)?

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“Herod Agrippa, the grandson of Herod the Great, ordered the death of James the brother of John” (p.28)."

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"5. When was James, the brother of Jesus, killed by orders of the high priest (28)?"

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“In A.D. 62 the other James, the brother of Jesus, was killed by orders of the high priest, even against the desire and advice of some of the Pharisees” (p.28)."

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6. To where did the leaders of the Christian community in Jerusalem decide to move (28-29)?

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“Soon thereafter, the leaders of the Christian community in Jerusalem decided to move to Pella, a city beyond the Jordan whose population was mostly Gentile” (p.28)."

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7. Approximately when did the Jewish Christians return to Jerusalem (29)?

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“Although by A.D. 135 a number of Jewish Christians returned to Jerusalem, their relationship with the rest of Christianity had been almost entirely severed, and leadership had passed to Gentile Christians” (p.29)."

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8. When did the church at Jerusalem “fade out of history” (29)?

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“When, in later centuries, Gentile Christians deigned to write a few words about that forgotten community, they would speak of its heretics and its strange customs, but they would have little of positive value to say about that church, which faded out of history in the fifth century” (p.29)."

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"1. According to Acts 8:1, what happened to the Hellenistic Jewish Christians (31)?"

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“According to Acts 8:1, these Christians “were all scattered throughout Judea and Samaria” (p.31)."

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2. What were the first indications of the church’s willingness to receive non-Jews in Acts (31)?

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“The mission of Philip in Samaria, and the conversion of the Ethiopian eunuch, are possibly the first indications of the church’s willingness to receive non-Jews” (p.31)."

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3. What was the decisive moment in Acts for the church and non-Jews (31-32)?

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“The issue is finally faced in Acts 10, in the episode of Peter and Cornelius, which eventually leads the church of Jerusalem to the surprised conclusion: “Then to the Gentiles also God has granted repentance unto life” (Acts 11:18). Immediately thereafter we are told that something similar happened in Antioch, with the result that Barnabas was sent by the church in Jerusalem to investigate the matter, and “when he came and saw the grace of God, he was glad” (Acts 11:23)” (p.31)."

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4. What was the Apostle Paul’s greatest and unique contribution to the shaping of early Christianity (33)?

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“Paul’s greatest and unique contribution to the shaping of early Christianity was not so much in the actual founding of churches. Rather, it was in the epistles that he wrote in connection with that activity, since those epistles eventually became part of Christian Scripture, and thus have had a decisive and continuing impact in the life and thought of the Christian church” (p.33)."

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5. What was the tradition regarding the last years of Peter (36)?

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“Of all these traditions, the most trustworthy is the one that affirms that Peter was in Rome, and that he suffered martyrdom in that city during the Neronian persecution. On these points, several writers of the first and second centuries agree. We are also told that he was crucified—according to one version, upside-down—and this seems to agree with the otherwise obscure words in John 21:18–19” (p.36)."

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6. What happened late in the second century which made the task of discovering the later career of the apostles difficult (37)?

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“Late in the second century, a development took place that greatly hinders the task of the historian who seeks to discern the later career of the apostles. What happened was that the churches in every important city began claiming apostolic origins” (p.37)."

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7. Which apostolic founders did Alexandria and Constantinople claim (37)?

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“the church in Alexandria felt constrained to have an apostolic founder, and thus the tradition appeared according to which Saint Mark had founded the church there. Likewise, when Constantinople became a capital city in the Empire, its church too needed apostolic roots, and thus it was claimed that Philip had preached in Byzantium, the ancient site where Constantinople was later built” (p.37)."

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8. What was the relationship between James (Santiago) and Spain (37-38)?

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“According to this tradition, James proclaimed the Gospel, without much success, in Galicia and Saragossa. On his way back, the Virgin appeared to him standing on a pillar, and gave him words of encouragement—this is the origin of the “Virgen del Pilar,” still venerated by many in the Spanish tradition. Back in Jerusalem, James was beheaded by Herod, and then his disciples took his remains back to Compostela in Spain, where they are supposedly buried to this day. This legend has been of great significance for the later history of Spain, for St. James (in Spanish, Santiago) became the patron saint of the nation. During the wars against the Moors, the name of “Santiago” was often the battle cry to which various small kingdoms rallied. At the same time, pilgrimages to the shrine of St. James in Compostela played an important role both in European religiosity and in the unification of northern Spain. The Order of Saint James was also a significant factor in Spanish history. Thus, although it is highly unlikely that James ever gave any thought to Spain, the legends regarding his visit were very influential in the later history of that country” (p.37-38)."

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9. What was the tradition about Thomas and India (38)?

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“We are told that an Indian king, Gondophares, was seeking an architect to build a palace, and that Thomas, who was no architect, offered himself for the job. When the king found that Thomas was giving to the poor the money allotted for the construction of the palace, he had the apostle put in prison. But then Gondophares’ brother, Gad, died and came back from the dead. Upon his return he told his brother of the magnificent heavenly palace that he had seen, which was being built through Thomas’ gifts to the poor. The king and his brother were then converted and baptized, and Thomas moved on to other parts of India, until he died as a martyr” (p.38)."

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1. Who was the early pagan historian that gave descriptions of persecution under Nero (42)?

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“Suetonius, a Roman historian, says that Jews were expelled from the capital city for their disorderly conduct “because of Chrestus” (p.42)."

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2. What was the value of Tacitus’ story about the burning of Rome (45)?

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“These words from Tacitus are of great value, for they are one of the most ancient extant indications of how pagans viewed Christians. Reading these lines, it is clear that Tacitus does not believe that the fire in Rome was set by Christians. Furthermore, he does not approve of Nero’s “refined cruelty.” But, all the same, this good and cultured Roman believes a great deal of what is being said about the “abominations” of Christians and their “hatred of humankind.” Tacitus and other contemporary authors do not tell us what these supposed “abominations” were. Second-century authors will be more explicit. But, in any case, Tacitus believes the rumors, and thinks that Christians hate humankind. This last charge makes sense if one remembers that all social activities—the theatre, the army, letters, sports—were so entwined with pagan worship that Christians often felt the need to abstain from them. Therefore, to the eyes of a Roman such as Tacitus, who loved his culture and society, Christians appeared as haters of humankind” (p.45)."

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3. What happened to Christians under the reigns of Vespasian and Titus (46)?

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“Eventually, Vespasian gained control of the government, and during his reign and that of his son Titus Christians were generally ignored by the authorities” (p.46)."

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4. What were potential reasons for Domitian’s persecution (46)?

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“Why he eventually turned against them is not clear. It is a fact that he loved and respected Roman traditions, and that he sought to restore them. Christians, in their rejection of Roman gods and of many Roman traditions, stood in the way of Domitian’s dreams, and this may have been one of the causes of persecution." "Jews also found themselves in difficulty with the emperor. Since the Temple had been destroyed in A.D. 70, Domitian decided that all Jews should remit to the imperial coffers the annual offering they would otherwise have sent to Jerusalem. Some Jews refused to obey, while others sent the money but made clear that Rome had not taken the place of Jerusalem. In response, Domitian enacted strict laws against Judaism, and insisted on the offering in even harsher terms." "Since at that time the distinction between Jews and Christians was not clear in the minds of Roman authorities, imperial functionaries began persecuting any who followed “Jewish practices.” Thus began a new persecution, which seems to have been directed against both Jews and Christians” (p.46-47)."

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5. What were the names of two Christians martyred by Domitian (47-48)?

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“In Rome, Flavius Clemens and his wife Flavia Domitilla, who may have been related to the emperor, were executed” (p.47)."

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6. What ancient letter speaks of persecution during Domitian’s reign (48)?

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“several ancient writers affirm that there were many martyrs, and a letter that the church in Rome addressed to the Corinthians—First Clement-

Hint 38

speaks of “the continuous and unexpected evils which have come upon us” (p.48)."

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7. Domitian’s persecution of Christians set the background for which New Testament book (48)?

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“In Asia Minor, this persecution resulted in the writing of the book of Revelation, whose author was exiled on the island of Patmos. There are indications that many were killed, and for generations the Church in Asia Minor remembered the reign of Domitian as a time of trial” (p.48)."

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"1. What was a dramatic account of the arrest, trial, and execution of martyrs (49)?"

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“Of these, the most dramatic are the “Acts of the Martyrs,” which retell the arrest, trial, and death of various martyrs” (p.49)."

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2. Who wrote seven letters that provide a valuable window on Christians’ attitudes toward martyrdom (49)?

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“We learn of the attitude of Christians towards martyrdom through other Christian writings. Of these, the most valuable is probably the set of seven letters that the aged Bishop Ignatius of Antioch wrote on his way to martyrdom” (p.49)."

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3. Who was appointed governor of Bithynia in AD 111? What is significant about this man’s actions and letters (49)?

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“In A.D. 111, Pliny the Younger was appointed governor of Bithynia, on the northern shore of what today is Turkey…. in Bithynia he had to deal with an unexpected problem. There were many Christians in the region—so many, in fact, that Pliny declared that the pagan temples were almost deserted, and that the sellers of sacrificial victims found few buyers. When somebody sent the new governor a list of Christians, Pliny began inquiries, for he knew that this religion was illegal." "The governor had the accused brought before him, and thus began learning of the beliefs and practices of Christians. Many declared that they were not Christians, and others said that, although they had followed the new faith for a time, they had abandoned it. Of these Pliny required only that they pray to the gods, burn incense before the image of the emperor, and curse Christ, something that he had heard true Christians would never do. Once they performed these rites, he simply let them go." "Those who persisted in their faith posed a different problem. Pliny’s practice was to offer them three opportunities to recant, while threatening them with death. If they refused, he had them executed, not so much for being Christians, as for their obstinacy. If they were Roman citizens, he had them sent to Rome, as the law required." "But Pliny considered himself a just man, and therefore felt obliged to find out what crimes, besides sheer obstinacy, Christians committed. All he could learn was that Christians gathered before dawn to sing to Christ “as to a god[…]”that this was the whole truth, Pliny put two female Christian ministers to torture. But they simply confirmed what he already knew." "The question then was, should Christians be punished for concrete crimes, or should the very name “Christian” be considered a crime? Not knowing what course to follow, Pliny suspended the proceedings and wrote Emperor Trajan for further instructions” (p.49-50)."

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4. How did Emperor Trajan set the stage for the Roman Empire’s dealings with Christians? What were the three pieces of his imperial policy (50-51)?

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“The emperor’s response was brief. When it comes to the punishment of Christians, there is no general rule that is equally valid in all circumstances. On the one hand, the nature of their crime is such that the state should not waste time seeking them out. On the other hand, if they are accused and refuse to recant they should be punished. Those who are willing to worship the gods should be pardoned without further inquiries. Finally, anonymous accusations should be disregarded, for they are a bad legal precedent and are unworthy of this age” (p.50)."

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5. Who was the bishop of Antioch that was condemned to death by imperial authorities in AD 107? What was this man’s most significant contribution (51-53)?

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“About A.D. 107, the elderly bishop of Antioch, Ignatius, was condemned to death by the imperial authorities…. On his way to martyrdom, he wrote seven letters that are among the most valuable documents for our knowledge of early Christianity.”"

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6. Which bishop’s martyrdom in AD 155 provides a significant amount of information about Rome’s persecution of Christians (53-54)?

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“Although very little is known of Ignatius’ martyrdom, there is much more information regarding that of his younger friend, Polycarp, when his time came almost half a century later. It was the year 155” (p.53)."

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7. What was the early church’s attitude toward martyrdom (55)?

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“This was important for those early Christians, who believed that martyrdom was not something that one chose, but something for which one was chosen by God. Those who were so chosen were strengthened by Christ, who suffered with them, and for that reason were able to stand firm. Their firmness was not of their own doing, but of God. On the other hand, those who ran forward and offered themselves for martyrdom—the “spontaneous”—were false martyrs, and Christ would desert them." "But not all Christians agreed with the author of the Martyrdom of Polycarp. Throughout the entire period of persecutions, there were occasional spontaneous martyrs. And, when they remained firm to the end, they found the approval of many.”"

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8. Gonzalez talked about three significant martyrs or periods of martyrdom during the reign of Marcus Aurelius. What were they (55-57)?

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“One of the most informative documents from this time is the one that tells of the martyrdom of the widow Felicitas and her seven sons… Her work was such that some pagan priests decided to put an end to it by accusing her before the authorities…. Another martyr during this persecution was Justin, perhaps the best Christian scholar of the time, who had founded in Rome a school where he taught what he called “the true philosophy,” that is, Christianity. He had recently bested a famous pagan philosopher in a public debate, and there are indications that it was this philosopher who accused him…. Further insight into this persecution come to us through a letter that the churches of Lyons and Vienne, in Gaul, sent to their fellow Christians in Phrygia and Asia Minor. It seems that at first all that was done in those cities was to forbid Christians to visit public places. But then the mob began following them on the streets, shouting at them and pelting them. Finally, several Christians were arrested and taken before the governor to be tried… The rest, however, stood firm, and this in turn increased the wrath of the governor and the mob. Torture was ordered” (p.56-57)"

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1. What was the task of the “apologists” (59)?

Back 48

“Given such circumstances, Christians felt the need to refute rumors and misconceptions regarding their beliefs and practices. Even if their arguments did not convince others of the truth of Christianity, something very tangible would be gained if false reports were dispelled. Such was the task of some of the ablest Christian thinkers and writers, known as the “apologists”—that is, defenders” (p.59)."

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2. Why did rumors about Christianity circulate? What were some of these rumors [Gonzalez lists five such rumors] (59-60)?

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“Thus, for instance, Christians gathered every week to celebrate what they called a “love feast.” This was done in private, and only the initiates (those who had been baptized) were admitted. Furthermore, Christians called each other “brother” and “sister,” and there were many who spoke of their spouses as their “sister” or “brother.” Joining these known facts, non-Christians imagined a picture of Christian worship as an orgiastic celebration in which Christians ate and drank to excess, put the lights out, and vented their lusts in indiscriminate and even incestuous unions. Communion also gave rise to another rumor. Since Christians spoke of being nourished by the body and blood of Christ, and since they also spoke of him as a little child, some came to the conclusion that, as an initiation rite, Christians concealed a newborn in a loaf of bread, and then ordered the neophyte to cut the loaf. When this was done, they all joined in eating the warm flesh of the infant. The new initiate, who had unwittingly become the main perpetrator of the crime, was thus forced to remain silent." "Some even claimed that Christians worshiped an ass. This was an old rumor about Judaism that was now extended to include Christians, and thus make them an object of mockery” (p.59-60)."

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3. What was the main objection which cultured despisers brought against Christians? What was the basis for this enmity against Christianity (60)?

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“Much more difficult to refute was the criticism of a number of cultured pagans who had taken the trouble to learn about Christianity and claimed that it was intellectually wanting. Although it attacked Christianity on numerous counts, this criticism boiled down to a main point: Christians were an ignorant lot whose doctrines, although preached under a cloak of wisdom, were foolish and even self-contradictory. This seems to have been a common attitude among the cultured aristocracy, for whom Christians were a despicable rabble” (p.60)."

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4. Who wrote an important refutation of Christianity during the reign of Marcus Aurelius? What was one of his charges (60)?

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“During the reign of Marcus Aurelius, one such intellectual, Celsus, wrote a refutation of Christianity called The True Word… ‘If you really wish to know the truth, leave your teachers and your father, and go with the women and the children to the women’s quarters, or to the cobbler’s shop, or to the tannery, and there you will learn the perfect life. It is thus that these Christians find those who will believe them’” (p.60)."

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5. What were some of the charges that the cultured despisers brought against Christianity [Gonzalez listed five] (61-62)?

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“Thus, the enmity against Christianity on the part of many cultured pagans was not a purely intellectual matter, but was deeply rooted in class prejudice. The cultured and sophisticated could not conceive the possibility that the Christian rabble could know a truth hidden to them. Their main objection was that Christianity was a religion of barbarians who derived their teaching, not from Greeks or Romans, but from Jews, a primitive people whose best teachers never rose to the level of Greek philosophers. If anything good is to be found in Jewish Scripture—they said—that is because the Jews copied it from the Greeks. Furthermore—the argument went on—the Jewish and Christian God is ridiculous. They claim on the one hand that God is omnipotent, high above every creature. But on the other hand they depict God as a busybody who is constantly delving into human affairs, who goes into every home listening to what is said and even checking what is being cooked. This is sheer contradiction and nonsense. In any case, the worship of this God destroys the very fiber of society, because those who follow this religion abstain from most social activities, claiming that participation in them would be tantamount to worshiping false gods. As to Jesus, it should suffice to remember that he was a criminal condemned by Roman authorities. Celsus even claims that Jesus was the illegitimate son of Mary with a Roman soldier. If he was truly Son of God, why did he allow himself to be crucified?... Also, these Christians preach—and truly believe—that they will rise again after death. It is on the basis of that belief that they face death with an almost incredible obstinacy. But it makes no sense to leave this life, which is certain, for the sake of another, which is at best uncertain. ”"

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6. What was the name of the earliest surviving apology for Christianity (62)?

Back 53

“Probably the earliest surviving apology is the Letter To Diognetus” (p.62).

Front 54

7. Who was the most famous of the early apologists (62)?

Back 54

“But the most famous of the early apologists was Justin” (p.62).

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8. What was the title of Justin’s dialogue with a Jewish rabbi (62)?

Back 55

“Three of his works are extant: two apologies—which are really two parts of a single work—and a Dialogue with Trypho, a Jewish rabbi” (p.62)."

Front 56

9. What were some of the conclusions that Christians drew because they rejected the worship of the gods [Gonzalez listed four] (63)?

Back 56

“Since they were accused of being uncultured barbarians, Christians were forced to take up the issue of the relationship between their faith and pagan culture. All Christians agreed that the worship of the gods, and everything related to that worship, must be rejected. This was the reason why they abstained from many civil ceremonies, in which sacrifices and vows were made to the gods. This, together with pacifist convictions, also led many Christians to the conclusion that they could not be soldiers, for the military were required to offer sacrifices to the emperor and the gods. Likewise, there were many Christians who objected to the study of classical literature, where the gods played an important part, and where all sorts of immorality was ascribed to them” (p.63)."

Front 57

10. What were the two opposite tacks that Christian took on the value of classical culture? Who were exemplars of these approaches (63-64)?

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“Therefore, on the question of the value of classical culture, Christians took two opposite tacks. Some insisted on a radical opposition between Christian faith and pagan culture. Typical of this attitude was Tertullian…. But not all Christians took the same stance. On becoming a Christian, Justin did not cease being a philosopher, but rather took upon himself the task of doing “Christian philosophy” and a major part of that task as he saw it was to show and explain the connection between Christianity and classical wisdom” (p.63-64)."

Front 58

11. Justin claimed that there were several points of contact between Christianity and pagan philosophy. What were they [Gonzalez listed three] (64-65)?

Back 58

“Justin claimed that there were several points of contact between Christianity and pagan philosophy. The best philosophers, for instance, spoke of a supreme being from which every other being derives its existence. Socrates and Plato affirmed life beyond physical death; and Socrates showed the strength of that affirmation by the manner in which he died. Plato knew that there are realities beyond those of the present world, and thus posited another world of eternal realities. Justin claimed that the philosophers were basically correct on all these points, although he did not always agree on the manner in which they understood them—for instance, in contrast to the philosophers, Christian hope is not based on the immortality of the soul, but rather on the resurrection of the body. But in spite of such differences, Justin insisted that there were in the philosophers glimpses of truth that could not be explained as mere coincidence” (p.64-65)."

Front 59

12. To what doctrine did Justin point in order to explain the partial agreement between philosophy and Christianity (65)?

Back 59

“For Justin, the answer is to be found in the doctrine of the Logos. This is a Greek word that means both “word” and “reason.” According to a tradition of long standing in Greek philosophy, the human mind can understand reality because it shares in the Logos or universal reason that undergirds all reality. For instance, if we are able to understand that two and two make four, the reason for this is that both in our minds and in the universe there is a Logos, a reason or order according to which two and two always make four. The Fourth Gospel affirms that in Jesus the Logos or “Word” was made flesh. Thus, according to Justin, what has happened in the incarnation is that the underlying reason of the universe, the Logos or Word of God, has come in the flesh” (p.65-66)."

Front 60

13. How did Christian apologists respond to the accusation of being atheists (66)?

Back 60

“When accused of being atheists, because they had no visible gods, Christians responded that in that case many of the greatest philosophers and poets were also atheists. To support that statement it sufficed to quote the ancient writers who had affirmed that the gods were human inventions, and that their vices were worse than those of their worshipers. Aristides suggested that such gods had been invented precisely in order to give full rein to human vice. Also, a common argument was that the idols, often made of gold and precious stones, had to be guarded against thieves. How can a god that must be protected provide any protection? How can a god made by human hands be above humans?” (p.66)."

Front 61

14. How did Christian apologists respond to objections against the final resurrection (66-67)?

Back 61

“To the objections raised against the final resurrection, the apologists respond by having recourse to divine omnipotence. If God made all bodies out of nothing, why would it be impossible for the same God to create them anew, even after they have been dead and scattered?” (p.66-67)."

Front 62

15. How did Christian apologists respond to accusations of being immoral (67)?

Back 62

“To the accusations that Christians are immoral, the apologists respond that this is not true, and that it is rather the pagans who are immoral. How can anyone believe that our worship is orgiastic and incestuous, when the rules of our conduct are such that even evil thoughts must be cast aside? It is the pagans who tell such things of their gods, and even practice them under the guise of worship. How can anyone believe that we eat children, when we reject every form of bloodshed? It is the pagans who leave their unwanted children exposed to the elements, to die of cold and hunger” (p.67)."

Front 63

16. How did Christian apologists respond to accusations of being subversive to society (67)?

Back 63

“Finally, Christians were accused of being subversive, for they refused to worship the emperor and thus destroyed the very fiber of society. The apologists answered that it was true that they refused to worship the emperor or any other creature, but that in spite of this they were loyal subjects of the Empire. What the emperor needs—they said—is not to be worshiped, but to be served; and those who serve him best are those who pray for him and for the Empire to the only true God” (p.67)."

Front 64

"1. Of the differing interpretations of Christianity, what was the most dangerous (70)?"

Back 64

“Of all these differing interpretations of Christianity, none was as dangerous, nor as close to victory, as was Gnosticism” (p.70)."

Front 65

2. What did the Gnostics claim to possess? Why was possession of this important (70)?

Back 65

“The name “gnosticism” derives from the Greek word gnosis, which means “knowledge.” According to the Gnostics, they possessed a special, mystical knowledge, reserved for those with true understanding. That knowledge was the secret key to salvation” (p.70)."

Front 66

3. The Gnostics held to a form of dualism. Briefly describe how this affected their view of creation and humankind (70-71).

Back 66

“Salvation was the main concern of the Gnostics. Drawing from several sources, they came to the conclusion that all matter is evil, or at best unreal. A human being is in reality an eternal spirit (or part of the eternal spirit) that somehow has been imprisoned in a body. Since the body is a prison to the spirit, and since it misguides us as to our true nature, it is evil. Therefore, the Gnostic’s final goal is to escape from the body and this material world in which we are exiled. The image of exile is crucial for gnosticism. The world is not our true home, but rather an obstacle to the salvation of the spirit – a view which, although officially rejected by orthodox Christianity, has frequently been part of it” (p.70-71)."

Front 67

4. What was required for Gnostic salvation or liberation? Who was sent to help us achieve this liberation (71-72)?

Back 67

“In order to achieve that liberation, a spiritual messenger must come to this world, to waken us from our “dream.” Our spirits are “asleep” within our bodies, being driven by the impulses and passions of the body, and someone must come from beyond to remind us who we really are and to call us to struggle against our incarceration. This messenger brings the gnosis, the secret knowledge and inspiration necessary for salvation. Above us are the heavenly spheres, each ruled by an evil power whose aim is to impede our progress to the spiritual realm. In order to reach the spiritual “fullness,” we must break through each of those spheres. The only way to do this is to have the secret knowledge that opens the way—much like a spiritual password. The heavenly messenger has been sent precisely to give us that knowledge, without which there is no salvation. In Christian gnosticism—one should always remember that there were also non-Christian Gnostics—that messenger is Christ. What Christ has then done is to come to earth in order to remind us of our heavenly origin, and to give us the secret knowledge without which we cannot return to the spiritual mansions” (p.71-72)."

Front 68

"5. Because Christ was a heavenly messenger, Gnostics developed a deviant position on Jesus’ human nature. What was it (72)?"

Back 68

“Since Christ is a heavenly messenger, and since body and matter are evil, most Christian Gnostics rejected the notion that Christ had a body like ours. Some said that his body was an appearance, a sort of ghost that miraculously seemed to be a real body. Many distinguished between the heavenly “Christ” and the earthly “Jesus.” In some cases, this was coupled with the notion that Jesus did have a body, but that this was of a “spiritual matter,” different from ours. Most denied the birth of Jesus, which would have put him under the power of the material world” (p.72). "

Front 69

6. What is “docetism” (72)?

Back 69

“All these notions are various degrees of what the rest of the church called “docetism”—a name derived from a Greek word meaning “to seem,” for all these doctrines implied, in one way or another, that the body of Jesus appeared to be fully human, but was not” (p.72)."

Front 70

7. What were the two divergent answers that Gnostics gave regarding how life is to be lived (72-73)?

Back 70

“Meanwhile, how is this life to be lived? At this point, Gnostics gave two divergent answers. Most declared that, since the body is the prison of the spirit, one must control the body and its passions and thus weaken its power over the spirit. But there were also some who held that, since the spirit is by nature good and cannot be destroyed, what we are to do is to leave the body to its own devices and let it follow the guidance of its own passions. Thus, while some Gnostics were extreme ascetics, others were libertines” (p.72-73)."

Front 71

8. When did Marcion go to Rome to establish his own church (73)?

Back 71

“He went to Rome, around the year 144, and there he gathered a following” (p.73)."

Front 72

"9. Because Marcion believed that the world is evil, what did he conclude? Who was the world’s creator? How did this affect his view of the Old Testament (74)?"

Back 72

“Since Marcion was convinced that the world is evil, he came to the conclusion that its creator must be either evil or ignorant. But instead of positing a long series of spiritual beings, like the Gnostics did, Marcion proposed a much simpler solution. According to him, the God and Father of Jesus is not the same as Yahweh, the God of the Old Testament. It was Yahweh that made this world. The Father’s purpose was that there be only a spiritual world. But Yahweh, either through ignorance or out of an evil intent, made this world and placed humankind in it—a theme that one finds in many Gnostic writings as well” (p.74)."

Front 73

10. How did Marcion view the Supreme God? How did he identify this Supreme God with Jesus (74)?

Back 73

“This means that the Hebrew Scriptures are indeed inspired by a god, although this is Yahweh, and not the Supreme Father. Yahweh is an arbitrary god, who chooses a particular people above all the rest. And he is also vindictive, constantly keeping an account on those that disobey him, and punishing them. In short, Yahweh is a god of justice—and of an arbitrary justice at that. Over against Yahweh, and far above him, is the Father of Christians. This God is not vindictive, but loving. This God requires nothing of us, but rather gives everything freely, including salvation. This God does not seek to be obeyed, but to be loved. It is out of compassion for us, Yahweh’s creatures, that the Supreme God has sent his Son to save us. But Jesus was not really born of Mary, since such a thing would have made him subject to Yahweh. Rather, he simply appeared as a grown man during the reign of Tiberius. Naturally, at the end there will be no judgment, since the Supreme God is absolutely loving, and will simply forgive us.”"

Front 74

11. What did Marcion compile in order to bolster his teaching about Jesus? How did the church respond to this action (74)?

Back 74

“All this led Marcion to set the Hebrew Scriptures aside. If the Old Testament was the word of an inferior god, it should not be read in the churches, nor used as the basis of Christian instruction. In order to fill this gap, Marcion compiled a list of books that he considered true Christian Scriptures. These were the epistles of Paul—according to Marcion, one of the few who had really understood Jesus’ message—and the Gospel of Luke. All other ancient Christian books were plagued by Jewish views. As to the many quotations from the Old Testament in Luke and Paul, Marcion explained them away as interpolations—the handiwork of Judaizers seeking to subvert the original message… But Marcion’s challenge required a response, and thus the church at large began to compile a list of sacred Christian writings” (p.74-75)."

Front 75

12. How did the consensus on the Christian canon develop? Which books were included first (75)?

Back 75

“What actually happened was that a consensus developed gradually. While very soon there was general agreement as to the basic books to be included in the canon of the New Testament, it took a long time to come to an absolute consensus on every minor detail… As to what is now called the “New Testament,” the Gospels were the first to attain general recognition… Next to the Gospels, the book of Acts and the Pauline epistles enjoyed early recognition. Thus, by the end of the second century, the core of the canon was established: the four Gospels, Acts, and the Pauline epistles. On the shorter books that appear towards the end of the present canon, there was no consensus until a much later date; but there also was little debate” (p.75-76)."

Front 76

13. What was another element in the church’s response to the Gnostic and Marcionite heresies (77)?

Back 76

“Another element in the church’s response to heresies was the use of various creeds, particularly in baptism” (p.77)."

Front 77

"14. Did the Apostles write their creed shortly after Jesus’ death? If not, how and when did the Creed develop (77)?"

Back 77

“The notion that the apostles gathered before beginning their mission and composed this creed, each suggesting a clause, is pure fiction. The truth is that its basic text was put together, probably in Rome, around the year 150…. Likewise, the “symbol” put together in Rome was a means whereby Christians could distinguish true believers from those who followed the various heresies circulating at the time, particularly gnosticism and Marcionism. Any who could affirm this creed were neither Gnostics nor Marcionites” (p.77)."

Front 78

15. What was one of the main uses of the Creed (77)?

Back 78

“One of the main uses of this “symbol” was in baptism, where it was presented to the candidate in the form of a series of three questions” (p.77)."

Front 79

"16. There were at least eight ways that the creed stood against Marcion and the Gnostics, according to Gonzalez. What were they (78)?"

Back 79

“Closer scrutiny clearly shows that this early creed is directed against Marcion and the Gnostics. First of all, the Greek word pantokrator, usually translated as “almighty,” literally means “all ruling.” What is meant here is that there is nothing, and certainly not the material world, which falls outside of God’s rule. The distinction between a spiritual reality that serves God and a material reality that does not is rejected. This world, its matter and its physical bodies, are part of the “all” over which God reigns." "The creed’s most extensive paragraph is the one dealing with the Son. This is because it was precisely in their Christology that Marcion and the Gnostics differed most widely from the church. First of all, we are told that Jesus Christ is the “Son of God.” Other ancient versions say “Son of the same” or “His Son,” as does our present Creed. The important point here is that Jesus is the Son of the God who rules over this world and over all reality. The birth “of Mary the virgin” is not there primarily in order to stress the virgin birth—although, quite clearly, that is affirmed—but rather to affirm the very fact that Jesus was born, and did not simply appear on earth, as Marcion and others claimed. The reference to Pontius Pilate is not there to put the blame on the Roman governor, but rather to date the event to insist on the fact that it was a historical, datable event. And docetism is further denied by declaring that Jesus “was crucified…died, and rose again.” Finally, it is affirmed that this same Jesus will return “to judge,” a notion that Marcion would never accept." "The third clause, although less explicit because the needs of the time did not require it to be extensive, also shows the same concern. The “holy church” is affirmed because, over against the Gnostics with their many schools, and Marcion with his own church, Christians were beginning to underscore the authority of the church. And the “resurrection of the flesh” is a final rejection of any notion that the flesh is evil or of no consequence” (p.78)."

Front 80

17. What did these debates with heretics bring into question? How did the church respond to this issue (79)?

Back 80

“the debate finally came to the issue of the authority of the church… Over against Marcion and the Gnostics, the church at large claimed to be in possession of the original gospel and the true teachings of Jesus. Thus, what was debated was in a way the authority of the church against the claims of the heretics”(p.79-80)."

Front 81

18. How was apostolic succession originally understood (80)?

Back 81

“In order to strengthen this argument, it was necessary to show that the bishops of the time were indeed successors of the apostles… Does this mean that only churches that could show such apostolic connections were truly apostolic? Not so, since the issue was not that every church could prove its apostolic origins, but rather that they all agreed on the one faith, and could jointly prove that this faith was indeed apostolic” (p.80)."

Front 82

19. What would be one of the ironies of the church’s claim to be “catholic” (81)?

Back 82

“The original meaning of Catholic church referred to this episcopal collegiality, as well as with the multiform witness to the gospel in several canonical gospels. The word “catholic” means “universal,” but it also means “according to the whole” (p.81)."

Front 83

1. In what century did Irenaeus of Lyon live (84)?

Back 83

“Irenaeus was a native of Asia Minor—probably Smyrna—where he was born around A.D. 130 (2nd century)” (p.84).

Front 84

2. Of whom was Irenaeus a disciple (84)?

Back 84

“Throughout his life, Irenaeus was a fervent admirer of Polycarp” (p.84)."

Front 85

"3. What was Irenaeus’ key image, both for himself and for God (84)?"

Back 85

“Irenaeus, who sees himself as a shepherd, also sees God as above all a shepherd” (p.84)."

Front 86

4. What did Irenaeus mean by “divinization” (85)?

Back 86

“Humankind is to be instructed, not only by the angels, but also by the “two hands” of God: the Word and the Holy Spirit. Led by those two hands, humans are to receive instruction and growth, always with a view to an increasingly close communion with God. The goal of this process is what Irenaeus calls “divinization”—God’s purpose is to make us ever more like the divine. This does not mean, however, that we are somehow to be lost in the divine, nor that we shall ever be the same as God. On the contrary, God is so far above us that no matter how much we grow in our likeness to the divine we shall always have a long way to go” (p.85)."

Front 87

5. What is the main thing that we find in Irenaeus (86)?

Back 87

“What we find in Irenaeus is a grand vision of history, so that the divine purposes unfold through it. The focal point of that history is the incarnation, not only because through it God’s word has straightened the twisted history of humankind, but also because from the very beginning the union of the human with the divine was the goal of history. God’s purpose is to be joined to the human creature, and this has taken place in a unique way in Jesus Christ” (p.86)."

Front 88

6. In what century did Clement of Alexandria live (86)?

Back 88

"2nd & 3rd centuries: “In 202, when Septimius Severus was emperor, persecution broke out, and Clement had to leave the city. He then traveled along the Eastern Mediterranean—particularly Syria and Asia Minor—until his death in A.D. 215” (p.86)."

Front 89

7. What was Clement’s goal as a thinker and searcher (87)?

Back 89

“He was not a pastor, like Irenaeus, but rather a thinker and a searcher; and his goal was not so much to expound the traditional faith of the church—although he did hold that faith—as to help those in quest of deeper truth, and to convince pagan intellectuals that Christianity was not the absurd superstition that some claimed it to be” (p.87)."

Front 90

8. What philosopher did Clement use in accomplishing his goal (87)?

Back 90

“In his Exhortation to the Pagans. Clement shows the gist of his theological method in making use of Plato and other philosophers” (p.87).

Front 91

"9. According to Clement, why was the Scripture written “in parables”? How did this relate to the literal sense of the Bible (87)?"

Back 91

“Clement is convinced that a careful study of Scripture will lead to the same truth that the philosophers have known. The reason for this is that Scripture is written allegorically or, as Clement says, “in parables.” The sacred text has more than one meaning. The literal sense ought not to be set aside. But those who are content with it are like children who are content with milk, and never grow to adulthood. Beyond the literal sense of the text there are other meanings that the truly wise must discover” (p.87)."

Front 92

10. In what area does Clement’s importance lie (88)?

Back 92

“In any case, Clement’s importance does not lie in the manner in which he understands one doctrine or another, but rather in that his thought is characteristic of an entire atmosphere and tradition that developed in Alexandria and that would be of great significance for the subsequent course of theology” (p.88)."

Front 93

11. In what treatise does Tertullian’s legal mind shine the best (89)?

Back 93

“The treatise where Tertullian’s legal mind shines is Prescription against the Heretics” (p.89).

Front 94

12. How does Tertullian’s argument about “prescription” presuppose an apostolic succession (89-90)?

Back 94

“His aim is to show, not simply that the heretics are wrong, but rather that they do not even have the right to dispute with the church. To this end, he claims that Scriptures belong to the church. For several generations the church has used the Bible, and the heretics have not disputed its possession. Even though not all of Scripture belonged originally to the church, by now it does. Therefore, the heretics have no right to use the Bible. They are latecomers who seek to change and to use what legally belongs to the church. In order to show that Scripture belongs to the church, it suffices to look at the various ancient churches where Scripture has been read and interpreted in a consistent manner since the times of the apostles. Rome, for instance, can point to an uninterrupted line of bishops joining the present time—the late second century—to the apostles Peter and Paul” (p.89)."

Front 95

13. What is Tertullian’s attitude toward “pagan philosophy” (90)?

Back 95

“This means that the accepted body of Christian doctrine suffices, and that any quest for truth that goes beyond that body of doctrine is dangerous. Naturally, Tertullian would allow Christians to delve deeper into Christian doctrine. But anything that goes beyond it, as well as anything coming from other sources, must be rejected. This is particularly true of pagan philosophy, which is the source of all heresy, and is nothing but idle speculation” (p.90)."

Front 96

14. What surprising event happened in Tertullian’s life around 207? Why was Tertullian attracted to this movement (91)?

Back 96

“Yet, around the year 207, that staunch enemy of heresy, that untiring advocate of the authority of the church, joined the Montanist movement. Why Tertullian took this step is one of the many mysteries of church history, for there is little in his own writings or in other contemporary documents that speaks directly of his motives. It is impossible to give a categorical answer to the question of why Tertullian became a Montanist. But it is possible to note the affinities between Tertullian’s character and theology, on the one hand, and Montanism on the other” (p.91)."

Front 97

15. Define Montantism (91).

Back 97

“Montanism is named after its founder, Montanus, who had been a pagan priest until his conversion to Christianity in A.D. 155. At a later time he began prophesying, declaring that he had been possessed by the Holy Spirit. Soon two women, Priscilla and Maximilla, also began prophesying. This in itself was not new, for at that time, at least in some churches, women were allowed to prophesy. What was new, and gave rise to serious misgivings, was that Montanus and his followers claimed that their movement was the beginning of a new age. Just as in Jesus Christ a new age had begun, so was a still newer age beginning in the outpouring of the Spirit. This new age was characterized by a more rigorous moral life, just as the Sermon on the Mount was itself more demanding than the Law of the Old Testament” (p.91)."

Front 98

16. Why was Tertullian attracted to Montantism (92)?

Back 98

“Tertullian seems to have been attracted by Montanist rigorism. His legal mind sought after perfect order, where everything was properly done. In the church at large, in spite of all its efforts to do the will of God, there were too many imperfections that did not fit Tertullian’s frame of mind. The only way to explain the continuing sin of Christians was to see the church as an intermediate stage, to be superseded by the new age of the Spirit” (p.92)."

Front 99

"17. In his treatise, Against Parxeas, Tertullian attacked a view of the Trinity that was modalistic. Define modalism and patripassianism (92). "

Back 99

“According to Praxeas, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost were simply three modes in which God appeared, so that God was sometimes Father, sometimes Son, and sometimes Holy Ghost—at least, this is what may be inferred from Tertullian’s treatise. This is what has been called “patripassianism” (the doctrine that the Father suffered the passion) or “modalism” (the doctrine that the various persons of the Trinity are “modes” in which God appears)” (p.92)."

Front 100

18. Tertullian contributed what two important Trinitarian and Christological formulas (92)?

Back 100

“But he then moves on to explain how the Trinity is to be understood. It is in this context that he proposes the formula “one substance and three persons.” Likewise, when discussing how Jesus Christ can be both human and divine, he speaks of “one person” and “two substances” or “natures,” the divine and the human. The manner in which he explains the meaning of the terms “person” and “substance” is drawn mostly from their legal use. Later theologians would explicate the same words in metaphysical terms. In any case, it is significant that, in both the Trinitarian and the Christological questions, Tertullian coined the formulas that would eventually become the hallmark of orthodoxy” (p.92)"

Front 101

"19. Since Tertullian was the first Christian theologian to write in Latin, what may he be considered (93)?"

Back 101

“Furthermore, he was the first Christian theologian to write in Latin, which was the language of the western half of the Empire, and thus he may be considered the founder of Western theology” (p.93)."

Front 102

20. Who put together the Hexapla? What was it (93-94)?

Back 102

“Origen’s literary output was enormous. Since he was aware of the manner in which diverse versions of Scripture differed, he compiled the Hexapla. This was an edition of the Old Testament in six columns: the Hebrew text, a Greek transliteration from the Hebrew—so that a reader who did not know that ancient language could at least have some idea of its pronunciation—and four different Greek translations” (p.93-94)."

Front 103

21. What was the spirit of Origen’s theology? What did he attempt to do (94)?

Back 103

“The spirit of Origen’s theology is very similar to that of his teacher, Clement. It is an attempt to relate Christian faith to the philosophy that was then current in Alexandria, Neoplatonism” (p.94)."

Front 104

22. Describe briefly Origen’s view of creation. How was this similar to Gnostic-type dualism (94-95)?

Back 104

“But Origen simply declares that there are two narratives because there were in fact two creations… According to Origen, the first creation was purely spiritual. What God first created were spirits without bodies. That is why the text says “male and female”—that is, “with no sexual differences. This is also why we are told that God “created,” and not that God “formed.”" "God’s purpose was that the spirits thus created would be devoted to the contemplation of the divine. But some of them strayed from that contemplation and fell. It was then that God made the second creation. This second creation is material, and it serves as a shelter or temporary home for fallen spirits. Those spirits who fell farthest have become demons, while the rest are human souls. It was for these human souls—fallen preexistent spirits—that God made the bodies we now have, which God “shaped” out of the earth, making some male and some female” (p.94-95)."

Front 105

23. What would be the division that would dominate the Greek-speaking East (96)?

Back 105

“The Greek-speaking East would soon be divided by differences reflecting the tradition expounded by Irenaeus on the one hand, and the philosophical outlook of Origen on the other” (p.96)."

Front 106

1. What religious policy did Roman emperor Septimius Severus follow in the early third century (97-98)?

Back 106

“Faced by such difficulties, the emperor felt the need for religious harmony within his territories, and thus settled on a policy of promoting syncretism. He proposed to bring all his subjects together under the worship of Sol invictus—the Unconquered Sun—and to subsume under that worship all the various religions and philosophies then current. All gods were to be accepted, as long as one acknowledged the Sun that reigned above all” (p.97)."

Front 107

2. What year was a landmark in the history of persecutions (98)?

Back 107

“Therefore, the year 202, when the edict of Septimius Severus was issued, is a landmark in the history of persecutions” (p.98)."

Front 108

3. What was the most famous martyrdom of that time and when did it occur (98)?

Back 108

“The most famous martyrdom of that time is that of Perpetua and Felicitas, which probably took place in 203” (p.98)."

Front 109

4. What religious policy did Roman emperor Decius follow in the mid-third century (100-101)?

Back 109

“If all the subjects of the Empire would worship the gods, perhaps the gods would once again favor the Empire." "This was the basis of Decius’ religious policy. It was no longer a matter of rumors about Christian immorality, nor of punishing the obstinacy of those who refused to worship the emperor. It was rather an entire religious campaign for the restoration of ancestral religion—a religion that was being particularly undermined by Christianity. What was at stake, as Decius saw it, was the survival of Rome itself. Those who refused to worship the gods were practically guilty of high treason." "Given these circumstances, Decius’ persecution was very different from the earlier ones. The emperor’s purpose was not to create martyrs, but apostates. Almost fifty years earlier, Tertullian had declared that the blood of the martyrs was a seed, for the more it was spilled the greater the number of Christians. The exemplary deaths of Christians in those early years had moved many who had witnessed them, and therefore persecution seemed to encourage the spread of Christianity. If, instead of killing Christians, they were forced to recant, this would be a victory for Decius’ goal of restoring paganism. Although Decius’ edict has been lost, it is clear that what he ordered was not that Christians as such ought to be persecuted, but rather that the worship of the gods was now mandatory throughout the Empire. Following the imperial decree, everyone had to offer sacrifice to the gods and to burn incense before a statue of Decius. Those who complied would be given a certificate attesting to that fact. Those who did not have such a certificate would then be considered outlaws who had disobeyed the imperial command." "The imperial decree found Christians unprepared for the new challenge. Those generations that had lived under constant threat of persecution were now past, and the new generations were not ready for martyrdom. Some ran to obey the imperial command. Others stood firm for a while, but when brought before the imperial authorities offered the required sacrifice to the gods. Still others obtained fraudulent certificates without actually worshiping the gods. And there was a significant number who resolved to stand firm and refuse to obey the edict." "Since Decius’ goal was to promote the worship of the gods, rather than to kill Christians, those who actually died as martyrs were relatively[…]” (p.101)."

Front 110

5. Who were the “confessors” (102)?

Back 110

“One of the results of this persecution was that a new title of honor appeared within the church, that of the “confessors.” Until that time, practically all who were taken before the authorities and remained firm had become martyrs. Those who offered sacrifice to the gods and to the emperor were apostates. Due to the policies established by Decius, there were now those who remained firm in their faith, even in the midst of cruel torture, but who never received the crown of martyrdom. Those who had confessed the faith in such circumstances were then given the title of “confessors,” and were highly respected by other Christians” (p.102)."

Front 111

6. What was the great question before the church in this period (102)?

Back 111

“In short, the great question before the church was what to do about the “lapsed”—those who, in one way or another, had weakened during the persecution” (p.102)."

Front 112

7. Who was Cyprian? What was his solution for this problem? Why did his pursue this policy (103-104)?

Back 112

“Cyprian had become a Christian when he was about forty years old, and shortly thereafter had been elected bishop of Carthage… Cyprian then called a synod—that is, a gathering of the bishops of the region—which decided that those who had purchased or otherwise obtained certificates without actually having sacrificed would be immediately readmitted to the communion of the church. Those who had sacrificed would only be readmitted on their deathbeds, or when a new persecution gave them the opportunity to prove the sincerity of their repentance. Those who had sacrificed and showed no repentance would never be readmitted. All these actions were to be taken by the bishops, and not by confessors. These decisions ended the controversy, although the schism continued for some time... The main reason why Cyprian insisted on the need to regulate the readmission of the lapsed into the communion of the church was his own understanding of the church. The church is the body of Christ, and will share in the victory of its Head. Therefore, “outside the church there is no salvation,” and “no one can have God as Father who does not have the church as mother” (p.103-104). "

Front 113

8. Who was Novatian? What was his solution for this problem? What group resulted from his policy (104)?

Back 113

“Novatian was more rigorous than Cyprian… in his opinion the lapsed were being readmitted too easily… The schism of Hippolytus did not last long, but the Novatianist schism did continue for several generations. The significance of these episodes is that they show that the restoration of the lapsed was one of the main concerns of the Western church from a very early date. The question of what should be done about those baptized Christians who sinned divided the Western church repeatedly. It was out of that concern that the entire penitential system developed. Much later, the Protestant Reformation was in large measure a protest against that system” (p.104)."

Front 114

1. To which social class did the vast majority of Christians during the first three centuries belong (105-6)?

Back 114

“Recent sociological studies indicate that the vast majority of Christians during the first three centuries belonged to the lower echelons of society” (p.105).

Front 115

2. In what venue did Christians of all social classes have a common experience (107)?

Back 115

“Worship was one point at which Christians of all social classes had a common experience” (p.107).

Front 116

"3. According to Gonzalez, what aspect of worship as the Christian viewed as its highest act throughout most of its history (107-8)?"

Back 116

“From that time, and throughout most of its history, the Christian church has seen in communion its highest act of worship” (p.108)."

Front 117

4. Describe the two main parts of a communion service in the early church (109)?

Back 117

“At least since the second century, there were two main parts in a communion service. First there were readings of Scripture and commentaries on them, with prayers and hymn singing. Since at that time it was almost impossible for an individual Christian to possess a copy of Scripture, this first part of the service was almost the only way in which believers came to know the Bible, and therefore it was rather extensive—sometimes lasting for hours. Then, after dismissing those who were not baptized with a prayer and a blessing, came the second part of the service, communion proper, which opened with the kiss of peace. After the kiss, the bread and wine were brought forth and presented to the one presiding, who then offered a prayer over the elements. In this prayer, often lengthy, the saving acts of God were usually recounted, and the power of the Holy Spirit was invoked over the bread and the wine. Then the bread was broken and shared, the common cup was passed, and the meeting ended with a benediction. Naturally, although these were the common elements in a typical communion service, in various places and circumstances other elements could be added” (p.109)."

Front 118

5. Who were the only folks that were allowed to attend a communion service (109)?

Back 118

“Then, after dismissing those who were not baptized with a prayer and a blessing, came the second part of the service, communion proper” (p.109)."

Front 119

6. Why did early Christians gather for communion at the tombs of the faithful (110-111)?

Back 119

“Although on occasion Christians did use the catacombs as hiding places, the reason why they gathered there was not that they feared the authorities, but rather two others. First, although the church was not recognized by the government, and therefore could not own property, funeral societies were allowed, and these could own cemetery property. In some cities, Christians organized themselves into such funeral societies, and therefore it made sense for them to gather at their cemeteries. But even more importantly, many heroes of the faith were buried there, and Christians believed that communion joined them, not only among themselves and with Jesus Christ, but also with their ancestors in the faith” (p.110)."

Front 120

7. Where did Christians typically gather for worship (111)?

Back 120

“More frequently than in catacombs or cemeteries, Christians gathered in private homes” (p.111)."

Front 121

8. What was the “fragmentum” (111)?

Back 121

“Another consequence of the growth of congregations was that it soon became impossible for all Christians in a particular city to gather together for worship. Yet, the unity of the body of Christ was so important that it seemed that something was lost when in a single city there were several congregations. In order to preserve and symbolize the bond of unity, the custom arose in some places to send a piece of bread from the communion service in the bishop’s church—the “fragmentum”—to be added to the bread to be used in other churches in the same city” (p.111)."

Front 122

9. What was the “diptychs” (111)?

Back 122

“Also, in order to preserve and symbolize the unity of Christians all over the world, each church had a list of bishops of other churches, both near and far, for whom prayer was to be made during communion. These lists were usually written on two writing tablets hinged or strung together, as was then customary for such notes and for some official communications. These sets of tablets were called “diptychs,” and at a later date the deletion of someone’s name from a church’s diptychs became a matter of grave importance. Just as the bond of unity was sealed by the inclusion of a name, that bond was broken by deleting a name” (p.111)."

Front 123

10. What were the three key days in the Christian week (111)?

Back 123

“Every Sunday was a sort of Easter, and a day of joy; and every Friday was a day of penance, fasting, and sorrow. Rather early, for reasons that are not altogether clear, Wednesday also became a day of fasting” (p.111)."

Front 124

11. How did the observance of Easter develop? What act of worship came to be connected to Easter (111-2)?

Back 124

“Once a year there was a very special Sunday, the day of resurrection, the greatest of Christian celebrations. Unfortunately, Christians were not in agreement as to when the great day was to be celebrated, for some thought it should be set in accordance with the Jewish Passover, while others believed that it should always be celebrated on a Sunday. By the second century there were bitter debates about the matter. To this day, although for other reasons, not all churches agree on the manner in which the date of Easter Sunday is to be determined. Part of what took place at Easter was the baptism of new converts, and the renewal of the vows of baptism by those who were already Christian” (p.111)."

Front 125

12. What was the origin of Lent (112)?

Back 125

“In preparation for these events, that usually took place at Easter, there was a time of fasting and penance. This is the origin of our present-day Lent.”"

Front 126

13. What was the origin of Epiphany (112)?

Back 126

“The earliest feast day in connection with the birth of Jesus was January 6, Epiphany, the day of his manifestation. This was originally the celebration of the birth itself” (p.112)."

Front 127

14. What was the “catechumenate” (112)?

Back 127

“But, as the Church became increasingly Gentile, it was necessary to require a period of preparation, trial, and instruction prior to baptism. This was the “catechumenate,” which, by the beginning of the third century, lasted three years. During that time, catechumens received instruction on Christian doctrine, and were to give signs in their daily lives of the depth of their conviction. Finally, shortly before being baptized, they were examined and added to the list of those to be baptized” (p.112)."

Front 128

15. How was baptism typically performed? Were other modes allowable (113)?

Back 128

“Baptism was usually by immersion. The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, a document of uncertain date, prefers that it be done in “living”—that is, running—water. But where water was scarce it could be administered by pouring water three times over the head, in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit” (p.113)."

Front 129

16. What did the early church records indicate about infant baptism (113)?

Back 129

“To this day, scholars are not in agreement as to whether the early church baptized infants. By the early third century, there are indications that sometimes the children of Christian parents were baptized as infants. But all earlier documents, and many later ones, provide such scant information that it is impossible to decide one way or the other” (p.113)."

Front 130

"17. In the second century, what were the three distinct positions of leadership in the church (113)?"

Back 130

“It is clear that early in the second century there were in the church three distinct positions of leadership: bishop, presbyter—or elder—and deacon” (p.113)."

Front 131

18. By which century did the leadership of the church become entirely masculine (114)?

Back 131

“It is clear that by the end of the second century the leadership of the church was entirely masculine” (p.114).

Front 132

19. Where was the typical venue for evangelism (115)?

Back 132

“The ancient church knew nothing of “evangelistic services” or “revivals.” On the contrary, in the early church worship centered on communion, and only baptized Christians were admitted to its celebration. Therefore, evangelism did not take place in church services, but rather, as Celsus said, in kitchens, shops, and markets” (p.115)."

Front 133

20. Who was Gregory Thaumaturgus? What was his “contribution” as a missionary method (116)?

Back 133

“The most famous of these workers of miracles was Gregory Thaumaturgus—a name that means “wonderworker.” He was from the region of Pontus, and had been converted through the learned witness of Origen. But upon returning to Pontus and becoming bishop of Neocaesarea, his great evangelistic success was due, not to his theological arguments, but to the miracles that he was said to perform. These were mostly miracles of healing, but we are also told that he could control the course of a river in flood, and that the apostles and the Virgin appeared to him and guided his work. Gregory was also one of the first to use a missionary method that has appeared again and again in later times: he substituted Christian festivals for the old pagan ones, and made sure that the Christian celebrations outdid the others” (p.116)."

Front 134

21. What was one of the earliest Christian symbols (117)?

Back 134

“The fish was one of the earliest Christian symbols, and for that reason appears frequently in communion scenes as well as in other contexts. The significance of the fish, apart from its connection with the miraculous feeding of the multitudes, was that the Greek word for fish—ichthys—could be used as an acrostic containing the initial letters of the phrase: “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior” (p.117)."

Front 135

1. Who was the emperor in the early fourth century when the worst persecution of Christians broke out (119)?

Back 135

“There were disturbances in some areas, and Diocletian became convinced that Christians were conspiring against him. He then decreed, first, that all the leaders of the churches be arrested and, somewhat later, that all Christians must offer sacrifice to the gods." Thus was unleashed the most cruel of all the persecutions that the ancient church had to endure” (p.121).

Front 136

2. Describe the pathway by which Constantine became emperor (123-6).

Back 136

“When Constantius died, the troops refused to obey the designs of Galerius and proclaimed Constantine as their augustus… Finally, in desperation, Galerius appealed to Diocletian, asking him to come out of retirement and establish order. But Diocletian declared that he was quite happy growing cabbages in his retirement, and refused to resume the government of the Empire, although he was willing to lead the necessary negotiations among the various rivals. The final result was a very unstable arrangement, which included the appointment of a new augustus, Licinius. By then the claimants to various parts of the Empire were too numerous to list here, and further civil wars were clearly inevitable. Meanwhile Constantine, the son of Constantius Chlorus, was simply biding his time and strengthening his position in his territories in Gaul and Great Britain… Galerius died… The Empire was then divided among Licinius, Maximinus Daia, Constantine, and Maxentius… Constantine, who during the previous intrigues and civil wars had limited his intervention to diplomatic maneuvering, began a campaign that would eventually make him master of the Empire. Suddenly, when least expected to do so, Constantine gathered his armies in Gaul, crossed the Alps and marched on Rome, Maxentius’ capital… Maxentius was defeated, and that as he fought on the Milvian bridge he fell into the river and drowned. Constantine thus became master of the entire western half of the Empire… After the battle of the Milvian bridge, he met with Licinius at Milan, and there concluded an alliance with him” (p.123-126)."

Front 137

3. How did the Diocletian persecution come to an end in AD 311 (124)?

Back 137

“Galerius became ill with a painful disease and, perhaps convinced by those Christians who said that this was a punishment from God, grudgingly decided to change his policy. On April 30, A.D. 311… “Such was the edict that ended the most cruel persecution that the church had to suffer from the Roman Empire” (p124)."

Front 138

4. Describe the situation in which Constantine saw his “in this you shall conquer” dream. Was this the moment of Constantine’s conversion (125-6)?

Back 138

“According to two Christian chroniclers who knew Constantine, on the eve of the battle [with Maxentius] he had a revelation. One of our sources, Lactantius, says that it was in a dream that Constantine received the command to place a Christian symbol on the shields of his soldiers. The other chronicler, Eusebius, says that the vision appeared in the sky, with the words, “in this you shall conquer.” In any case, the fact remains that Constantine ordered that his soldiers should use on their shield and on their standard or labarum a symbol that looked like the superimposition of the Greek letters chi and rho. Since these are the first two letters of the name, “Christ,” this labarum could well have been a Christian symbol. Although eventually Christians saw in this the great moment of Constantine’s conversion, historians point out that even after this event Constantine continued worshiping the Unconquered Sun. In truth, Constantine’s conversion was a long process” (p.125-126)."