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191 Cards in this Set

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Mustafa Kemal Ataturk
reformism, republicanism, secularism, nationalism, populism, étatism
Intensive period of reform designed to root out Ottoman past and replace it with a Western orientation in all areas of national life
Reformism
Openness to innovation and acceptance of nonviolent change
Republicanism
Constitutional government, emphasis on popular sovereignty
Secularism
Depose Caliphate and banish it from Turkey
Remove shari’a from law, put in place Swiss civil code
Don’t ban Islam, just have separation from Islam & State
Nationalism
Create pride in Turkishness to promote cultural identity for new state
Replace Arabic script with Latin script
No cultural pluralism
Populism
Adult education centers, sports clubs, political indoctrination units
Run out of people’s houses
Educational expansion, battle against illiteracy
Etatism
Make Turkey less dependent on imports, develop industrial base
State capitalism
Not successful
Kemalism
reformism, republicanism, secularism, nationalism, populism, étatism
Intensive period of reform designed to root out Ottoman past and replace it with a Western orientation in all areas of national life
Reformism
Openness to innovation and acceptance of nonviolent change
Republicanism
Constitutional government, emphasis on popular sovereignty
Secularism
Depose Caliphate and banish it from Turkey
Remove shari’a from law, put in place Swiss civil code
Don’t ban Islam, just have separation from Islam & State
Nationalism
Create pride in Turkishness to promote cultural identity for new state
Replace Arabic script with Latin script
No cultural pluralism
Populism
Adult education centers, sports clubs, political indoctrination units
Run out of people’s houses
Educational expansion, battle against illiteracy
Etatism
Make Turkey less dependent on imports, develop industrial base
State capitalism
Not successful
Reza Khan, Reza Shah
reformism, republicanism, secularism, nationalism, populism, étatism
Intensive period of reform designed to root out Ottoman past and replace it with a Western orientation in all areas of national life
Reformism
Openness to innovation and acceptance of nonviolent change
Republicanism
Constitutional government, emphasis on popular sovereignty
Secularism
Depose Caliphate and banish it from Turkey
Remove shari’a from law, put in place Swiss civil code
Don’t ban Islam, just have separation from Islam & State
Nationalism
Create pride in Turkishness to promote cultural identity for new state
Replace Arabic script with Latin script
No cultural pluralism
Populism
Adult education centers, sports clubs, political indoctrination units
Run out of people’s houses
Educational expansion, battle against illiteracy
Etatism
Make Turkey less dependent on imports, develop industrial base
State capitalism
Not successful
Secularism
Secularism
Pahlavi dynasty
Ruling dynasty in Iran set by Reza Shah
Wafd
Declaration of the desire for Egyptian independence
Got Egypt declared independent but made England in charge of a lot of domestic affairs
Wafd won 90% of seats in Parliament in 1924
Constitution gave lots of powers to King Fuad
Became corrupted by WW2
Sa`ad Zaghloul
Founded Wafd party in 1919
First elected prime minister
Punished opposition, didn’t compromise
Khedive Fuad
King Fuad of Egypt
Dismissed Wafd Parliament whenever they did something he didn’t like
British puppet
King Faysal (Iraq)
o British-installed ruler of Iraq
o Appealed to a broad cross-section of Iraqis
o Organic law of 1925
• Iraq is a constitutional monarchy with an elected legislature
• Iraqi army was an instrument of state authority
• Public school system
Lord Cromer (Evelyn Baring)
British ruler in Egypt
• Anglo-Iraqi Treaties, 1924 and 1930
o Distanced Iraqi government from British to not appear like a puppet
• Iraq became fully independent
• Gave British large stake in oil though
• Ex-Sharifian Officers
hjg
• Nuri al-Sa`id
o Prime minister in Iraq
o Sunni
o Controlled lots of Iraq
o British puppet
• Allied with them during WW2
• `Abd al-Aziz ibn Sa`ud
o New Saudi ruler
o Made Wahhabism part of Saudi government
o United Saudi Arabia
o Forced Wahhabism
• Rashidis, Hashimites
h
• Treaty of Jeddah, 1927
o Recognized Saud as the ruler of Hijaz
• Maronite
o Catholics in Mount Lebanon
o France professed a moral duly to be their protector
• Druze
o Group of Christian-cultists given their own state by France to try to divide & weaken Syrian nationalism
• National Pact of 1943
o Established Lebanon as its own country
o Tested Arabism
• Alawite
o Group of Shi’as given their own state by France to try to divide & weaken Syrian nationalism
• Sultan al-Atrash
o Started Syrian rebellion
o Leader in Jabal Druze
• National Bloc
o Ruling body in Syria post 1939 revolt
o Ruled by elite group of families
o Nationalists, wanted Syrian independence
• Sought to preserve their own power at the same time
• Egyptian Revolution of 1919
o Started by Wafd to rebel against British rule
• Iraqi tribal uprising of 1920
o Uprising on Euphrates
o Localized rebellion against Britain & attempt to centralize government
o Britain quelled it at large costs, made British want to not rule Iraq as directly as Egypt
• Great Revolt of 1925-27 (Syria)
o Druze leader Sultan Atrash started this to drive French out of Jabal Druze
o Spread to rest of Syria
o Resulted in National Bloc
• Antun Sa`adah
o Hated French divisions of Syria
o Wanted to unite Syria & Lebanon
• Didn’t want to unite it with other Arab countries though
• Sati al-Husri
o Wrote about Arab Nationalism
o Wanted a single Arabian state
o Shared language & common history
• Hasan al-Banna
o Founded Muslim Brotherhood
o Reimplementation of Shari’a
o Allowed technological advances
o Socialism
o Education
• Yusuf Salman Yusuf (Comrade Fahd)
h
King Faysal
Amir Faysal was the field commander of the Arab revolt and the son of the monarch of the recently dismembered Syrian kingdom. The British were having trouble dealing with Iraq during the period between the world wars. The British used him to establish a king who was moderate and would make an attractive structure in Iraq; they brought him in 1921 and established him as King. There were no systems of education, government, national defense and much else so Faysal had a challenge ahead to organize a group of people who were only Iraqi in name alone. He established a small army (limited by the British to 7500 but later expanded to over 26000 after independence in 1932). He established Islam as the state religion with Shari`ah law in place for both the Sunni and Shias in the region. He elected an ex ottoman official to become the director of general education as there were hardly any students in the entire country. Britain extra careful to not give him the image of British puppet. Untimely death in 1933 left Iraq without experienced leadership and his son Ghazi was uninterested and inept to rule just yet.
Nuri al-Sa`id:
Nuri was the prime minister 5 times during the 1930’s. He was part of a small group of individuals who dominated the political courts when Faysal died. Without Faysal’s mediation skills the elite was fighting with each other and everything was a mess. He was a moderate the realized the debt Iraq was in to Britain. Nuri headed two wartime cabinets. Nuri and the regent Abd-allah truly dominated Iraqi politics during WW2 all the way to 1958. The exiled the commander Rashid Ali who rose against the British. Were eventually toppled because they were seen as opponents of nationalism.
King Ghazi:
King Ghazi: Son of King Faysal, when Faysal died he neither was inept to rule nor was he interested in affairs of state. 1939 died in a car accident and left his Son King Faysal II to rule. Literally nothing else about him in the books except for what I wrote above, clearly an unimportant person. He must have just been in the background while Nuri and that clique of powerful men dominated.
Ex-Sharifian officers:
Ex-Sharifian officers: these were the officers that fought with Faysal in the Arab revolt and the most prominent of which played a large role in Iraq’s politics during and after Faysal. Nuri was one of these officers.
Kurds, Shi`a:
Kurds, Shi`a: The Kurs in northern Iraq resisted the efforts of to create an Iraqi state. They had their own culture and language and were predominantly Sunni. Their unwillingness to assimilate into the majority Arab outlook created a conflict that lasted from Iraq’s founding, all through it modern history and even to present day. So we had an Assyrian Christian population in the north as well, a substantial Jewish population in Baghdad and a Shia population in the south, along with the normal Sunni and Kurd Sunni, this is bound to create tension, and did. (map on page 191)
King Faysal II:
King Faysal II: 1939 he took the throne at age 3 when his father died in a car accident. Obviously didn’t rule but was placed under the regency of abd al-ilah (prince of a Hashemite family) who is mentioned above as a close ally of Nuri. Together they dominated politics in Iraq whilst Faysal II was young and essentially useless. Faysal II came to age around 1953 but the power was still with nuri and abd al’ilah. Nuri, abd illah, and Faysal II were all overthrown and killed in a bloody coup by abd al karim qasim.
King `Abdallah:
King `Abdallah: Older brother of Faysal I (initial king of Iraq). British established him in Transjordan, which like Iraq had no real unity or identity. Amman became capital under a new British mandate in 1921. British made him leader so that he could unify the area and stop the original tribes from running rampant and disrupting European interests in the Middle East. In 1930 the Arab legion desert wing was created to stop these raids and tribes and was very successful in doing so. Captain John Glubb molded this force into a well-disciplined army and Abdallah who was a fervent ally of Britain used them to aid Britain during the Rashid Ali revolt in Iraq and for WW2. He became king 1946 as a reward for his wartime loyalty to Britain. Transjordan was granted independence as well.
Arab Legion:
Arab Legion: fighting force created by British and Abdallah, Abdallah let the British use them basically wherever they needed them. Became an elite fighting force that stopped the tribes and raids that initially plagued Jordan. Went on to help British in WW2.
National Bloc
National Bloc: after the great revolt of Syria the National Bloc was a new political organization. The founders of this for the most part were people from the same families or people who had exercised some power in the ottoman era. Established anti French sentiments but had to at the same time persuade the French into believing they’d control their clients, wanted Syrian independence. The national bloc wanted to preserve social, economic and political relationship from which their wealth and power came from. So although they wanted the French to withdraw, they also wanted to retain their dominant social positions so that they could step in and replace the French when the time came. Problem is that these people did not have much experience in governing. The French never truly lost mandate power. Although the Syrians “governed” themselves for a period of time the French had veto power which made a total mockery out of the notion of Syrian autonomy.
Shukri al-Quwwatli:
Shukri al-Quwwatli: became president of national bloc around 1943. This is after the French screwed Lebanon and Syria over time and time again with promises for independence but never giving it to them. When Syria and Lebanon finally got their independence in 1941, shukri took power in Syria. Unfortunately the French mandate didn’t allow these people to actually get experience in governance so they had some real challenges they were not ready to face coming up.
Bishara al-Khuri:
Bishara al-Khuri: bitter political rival of Emile edde who was very happy with the French mandate in Lebanon. He saw Lebanon as a Christian Maronite homeland. Bishara was also a Paris trained lawyer as edde and say Lebanon as a Maronite homeland, he also was more sensitive to the needs of the Muslim community. He realized for the state to exist there must be a Christian-Muslim cooperation based on common opposition to French presence. Lebanese elections brought Bishara to power as president and he selected a Sunni prime minister as an ally. After the real independence in 1941 he was truly in power.
Riyadh al-Sulh:
Riyadh al-Sulh: An ally of Bishara from the interwar years. He was the sunni prime minister that Bishara put in power. They worked out a compromise solution together to the problem on sectarianism and regional identity. Their agreement was dubbed the national pact of 1943.
National Pact of 1943:
National Pact of 1943: attempted to assuage the fears of Christian Lebanese of being absorbed into larger arab-islamic state by recognizing Lebanon as a distinct identity. And at the same tame satisfied Muslims by proclaiming Lebanon had an Arab identity and it would exist as a part of the Arab world. So the Christians accepted Lebanon’s arabness and the Muslims renounced any plans to seek a merger with other Arab states.
King Fuad:
King Fuad: King of Egypt (1917-1936). Wanted to protect his royal powers and did not hesitate to dismiss governments whenever it suited him. Unfortunately the constitution allowed all this as it gave the king too much power and he liked it that way. Britain gave them basic independence in 1936, they were still allowed to militarize the Suez canal zone and still had the right to come to Egypt aid in time of war. Fuad died in 1936 and his son Faruq replaced him.
King Faruq:
King Faruq: was initially popular but that quickly changed because of his excessive personal indulgences. Most notable for being king at the time of the February fourth incident. Faruq had a close advisor called Ali Mahir who happened to be pro-axis, when he resigned in 1940 Faruq wanted him back. Obviously the British most definitely did not in the middle of WW2 so they wanted a Wafd government in place. So in 1942 miles Lampson a British ambassador went to go meet with the king, then surrounded the royal palace with ranks and troops and gave Faruq an ultimatum: establish a Wafd Gov’t or abdicate. He chose the Wafd.
Wafd:
Wafd: created by 7 prominent Egyptians in 1918, it was a delegation. They tried to represent Egypt at the Paris peace conference but were denied, so they went to Egypt and rallied support of nationalism through the people. The party was led by sa`d Zaghlul. He kept fighting for Egyptian independence and so was arrested and exiled by the British. The Egyptians were not happy. Huge riots and uprising began, causing massive damage and disruption. And finally through the power of the common people, the Wafd became the representatives of Egypt. The Wafd won 90% of the seats in parliament and Zaghlul stacked as much wafd sympathizers as he could into any position of political power. Obviously Fuad was competition since he was very authoritarian. The British had to choose between two poisons and during the time of war decided the Wafd was a better idea to support than the monarch (Faruq at that point) and his pro axis advisor. Once zaghlul died, the leader became Mustafa al-nahhas and the party became corrupt and factionalized.
Black Saturday:
Black Saturday: after british tanks destroyed an Egyptian police barracks, killing many. Cairo retalitaedfor the incident with a huge wave of riots and demonstrations. Juanary 26, 1952 is when this all happened and it was a day after the british exploded the barracks. It was a complete breakdown of law and order that not only targeted british things but also bars cinema’s and other establishments that were aprt of the corruption of the upper class. The regime only survived a couple more months then was overthrown but the free officers.
Free Officers:
Free Officers: July 23rd 1952 these men staged the coup of 1952 which overthrew the old regime of Egypt. It was a group of junior military officers who had known each other since the early 1940’s and were headed by Gamal abd al-Nasser.
Muhammad Naguib:
Muhammad Naguib: He was one of the few officers to emerge from the 1948 conflict with his reputation intact and the free officers needed a senior officer who was respected and experienced to serve as a figurehead to the cause. They knew their youth and obscurity would prevent them from getting much public support so that was their use for Naguib.
Gamal `Abd al-Nasir (Nasser):
Gamal `Abd al-Nasir (Nasser): The head of the free officers and a warrior from the campaign of 1948. Was educated in a military school after a pretty rough childhood and unfocused childhood. Once the officers assumed power they created the revolutionary command council (RCC) that ruled Egypt and was led by Nasser. He exiled Faruq and in 1953 the monarch was abolished. As well as the old constitution. His only real opposition was the Muslim Brotherhood which was far more popular than the RCC. At first the tried to co-exist because many free officers had ties but after the borthehood tried to assassinate Nasser they were abolished, killed, imprisoned, etc… and they went into the underground again .
Revolutionary Command Council:
Revolutionary Command Council: much about this council is mentioned above. They also established control of the armed forces through Nasser’s alliance with Abd al-Hakim as the political operative within the military. The only issue was a struggle for power between Naguib and Nasser which broke out in 1954. Naguib was trying to be more than a figurehead so he was accused to be a supporter of the brotherhood and put under house arrest until his death in 1984. The RCC become the dominant force under the guidance of Nasser. They even got the British to leave the Suez Canal at 1956, something the wafdists could not do.
Agrarian Reform Law of 1952:
Agrarian Reform Law of 1952: introduced by the RCC and it limited by law the amount of land a single individual could own to 200 feddans (1 feddan is 1.038 acres). The surplus would be taken by the state for redistribution in small plots to tenants or peasants who owned less than 5 feddans. This was a move at gaining some popular support. Landlords were compensated with government bonds. This not only gained support of the lower class but it also limited power of local elite and landowners. It was very successful as it by no means stripped the wealth from the upper class, but it did affect them. It was well done and received much positive commentary.
National Union:
National Union: an executive committee which nominated and screened any candidate to the national assembly. This was obviously run by Nasser as well. Obviously this was not a true democracy. Nasser went on to apparently receive 99.9% of the presidential vote.
United Arab Republic:
United Arab Republic: Created in 1958as a step towards Arab Unity. It was a total union of Egypt and Syria into a single state. The ba`th party in Syria encouraged the idea because they were afraid of a communist party in Syria that may try and overthrow the Ba`th party. So they approached Nasser, who at this point was seen as an Arab Champion, and he agreed and was welcomed into Damascus by a cheering crowd. Egypt became quickly dominant and suddenly the Syrians who initially wanted the merger found themselves in Cairo. Nasser becomes the president of the UAR and suddenly it seemed that all the military police and power in Syria was replaced by their Egyptian counterparts, this obviously created tension. September 1961, units within the Syrian army rebelled and brought an end to the UAR.
Philosophy of the Revolution:
Philosophy of the Revolution: Book written by Nasser where he lays out the principles behind the Egyptian Revolution. (I honestly didn’t find this mentioned in the book nor do I know how important it is to her test-wise)
Umm Kulthum:
Umm Kulthum: Most popular arab singer of the era that was an Egyptian woman who just about everyone loved. Egypt was truly the center of Pan-Arabism.
Wahhabism
Wahhabism: Ibn Sa`ud (1881-1953) founded his new state of Saudi Arabia on the doctrines of Wahhabi Islam. The revival of this movement is thanks to the warrior statesman mentioned above. Wahhabism is a puritanical reformist doctrine that wants to revert to really old school Islam. It’s super strict and conservative. Because of Ibn Sa`uds prowess and might, he united all the tribes in the area and put them all under this doctrine which accounts for the ridiculously fast expansion of Wahhabi Islam in the peninsula.
Ikwan
Ikwan: literally means brethren. By persuading the tribes to adopt the practices and outlook of wahhabism, ibn sa`ud provided them with a sense of communal loyalty that was stronger than the tribal alliances. They were now called the Ikwhan or brethren and they became imbued with a common mission, a desire to extend this new doctrine. Ibn Sa`uds success is bound to the ikwan’s commitment to the spread of Wahhabi Islam.
mutawwa`a:
mutawwa`a: These are the government recognized religious police of Saudi Arabia. They inforce the Shari`a law (or their interpretation of it at least).
Ibn Sa`ud:
Ibn Sa`ud: Essentially the true founder of modern day Saudi Arabia (which is named after him as you can see). He took the Wahhabi doctrine and used his might as a warrior and statesman to expand it all around the peninsula by getting all the tribes and such to be as zealous as the doctrine as he was. This created a sense of unity amongst the tribes to a degree never before seen; these new brethren helped him spread the religion all across the land where he established himself as kind. He declared himself an ally of Britain towards the end of WW2 and didn’t truly get to reap the benefits of the oil money until the late 1940’s. so it’s impressive that he really took and impoverished and fractured tribal area and turned It into his own conservative kingdom.
King Sa`ud:
King Sa`ud: The least competent of Ibn Sa`ud’s sons, reigned from 1953-1964. He was hostile towards Nasser while Nasser was at the peak of his popularity. He squandered millions on personal indulgences and drove the state to the brink of bankruptcy. Was an embarrassment to the legacy of the family and was deposed in favor of crown prince Faysal.
King Faysal:
King Faysal: reigned 1964-1975 and he transformes Saudi arabias administration, armed forces, education and regional stature. He made the decision in 73 to join the oil embargo which catapulted his nation into global financial superstardom and modernization. He rode this wave of EXTREME oil revenue during his tenure but unfortunately this immense wealth and modernization brought foreign labor and created a middle class which didn’t help appease the older more conservative Saudi’s. Fortunately the wealth was used to advance economic and social development. Faysal was assassinated by one of his nephews in 1975.
King Khalid:
King Khalid: Faysals successor but was not ready to be so. He put much of his authority on the crown prince Fahad. This prince had major responsibilities and took the throne after Khalid’s death.
Juhayman ibn Muhammad al-`Utaybi:
Juhayman ibn Muhammad al-`Utaybi: A former officer of the national guard who let a few hundred troops that mostly consisted of youth dropouts to seize the Grand Mosque of Mecca in 1979. He then used the public speakers and public address system to broadcast accusations of corruption against the gov’t and the uluma. It lasted two weeks until the gov’t got a decree from the uluma that allowed the use of force. His accusations did not go unnoticed though, people started to realize the royal family was hardly living by the Islamic code that they so harshly defended as their right to rule.
Cold War
A sustained state of political and military tension between powers in the Western Bloc, dominated by the United States with NATO among its allies, and powers in the Eastern Bloc, dominated by the Soviet Union along with the Warsaw Pact. A neutral faction arose with the Non-Aligned Movement founded by Egypt, India, and Yugoslavia; this faction rejected association with either the US-led West or the Soviet-led East. The tensest times were during the Suez Crisis (1956). Such is an example of how the US and the USSR became involved in political military conflicts in the Third World countries of the Middle East, along with other regions.

Although the entire Middle East was affected by the Cold War struggle, the first states of the region to be drawn into the superpower rivalry were Turkey and Iran, the USSRs immediate neighbors. The US, as part of its policy of containing the Soviet Union, provided economic and military assistance to the two states. The United States appeared to be assuming Britain’s former role as an imperial power interested in dominating the Middle East for its own ends. So, in the process of erecting this shield of alliances against soviet expansionism, the US took Britain’s role as the primary Western power in the Middle East. Although the countries of the region appreciated US economic aid, the United State’s interference in domestic political life and the presence of US military bases became a cause for resentment in some quarters. The United States had replaced Britain not only as a power, but also as a target for criticism by Middle East nationalists.
Truman Doctrine, 1947
In the eastern Mediterranean region, the Cold War view was expressed through the Truman Doctrine of 1947. Formulated in reaction to Soviet pressures on Turkey (Moscow put forward claims in 1945 to Turkish territory in eastern Anatolia and demanded a greater share in governing and policing the Turkish Straits), as well as to the outbreak of a Communist insurgency in Greece, the Truman Doctrine was an early formulation of the domino theory. It was based on the belief that unless the US intervened, the Soviet Union was likely to gain control of Greece and Turkey, and, once this occurred, the other states of the Middle East would quickly fall under Communist influence. The Truman Doctrine was designed to forestall this eventuality by committing Washington to provide military assistance and economic aid to Greece and Turkey. Between 1947 and 1960, US aid to Turkey totaled around $3 billion, enabling the Turks to maintain an armed force of 500,000 men as a deterrent to Soviet designs. The sheer scale of the foreign aid may also have led the Turkish government to adopt irresponsible economic policies in the 1950s.
NATO
The US policy of containment included plans to construct networks of interlocking alliances among the states of the Middle East. Thus, in 1952 Turkey and Greece became full members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. The organization constitutes a system of collective defense whereby its member states agree to mutual defense in response to an attack by any external party. Most recently, in 2011, NATO enforced a no-fly zone over Libya in accordance with UN Security Resolution 1973.
Baghdad Pact, 1955
In 1955, the Baghdad Pact was created by an alliance between Turkey and Iraq, o which Britain, Pakistan, and Iran soon became parties. The Baghdad Pact was an attempt to extend the policy of containment to the Arab states through the use of British influence. Participants to the pact signed an interlocking series of agreements during 1954 and 1955. Nasser refused to allow Egypt to join the pact, claiming that it was an extension of imperialism aimed at keeping the Arabs in the stifling embrace of the West, and he criticized Nuri al-Sa‘id of Iraq for entering into imperial alliances. The Egyptian president also began a propaganda campaign to persuade other Arab states to stay clear of the Baghdad Pact. His efforts were successful in convincing the governments of Jordan and Syria to decline membership in the alliance.
Warsaw Pact, 1955
The Warsaw Pact was a mutual defense treaty between eight communist states of Central and Eastern Europe in existence during the Cold War. The Warsaw Pact was in part a Soviet military reaction to the integration of West Germany into NATO.
Eisenhower Doctrine, 1957
Soviet-US rivalry in the Middle East was a constant factor in the evolution of Egyptian foreign policy. In the aftermath of the Suez crisis, the United States formulated a new policy to deal with its concerns over the Soviet threat in the region. Known as the Eisenhower Doctrine, the policy contained promises of economic and military assistance to countries resisting communism. In addition, the doctrine authorized the deployment of US forces to protect the independence of Middle Eastern states threatened by armed aggression from any nation controlled by international communism. To Nasser, this smacked the same kind of Western control embodied in the Baghdad Pact, and he viewed the Eisenhower Doctrine with suspicion. Nevertheless, even as Egypt became more reliant on Soviet military assistance, Nasser kept open his country’s ties to the US. He defined Egypt’s foreign policy as positive neutralism. It was a self-interested policy designed to enable Egypt to acquire benefits from both of the superpowers at the same time while avoiding total reliance on either of them. In Jordan, King Abdallah’s grandson, Husayn requested US military support and economic assistance to hold back opposition groups. Under the terms of the Eisenhower Doctrine, the US responded with an immediate grant of $10 million and the dispatch of the Sixth Fleet to the eastern Mediterranean. Husayn chose Western aid to save his thrown.
John Foster Dulles
John Foster Dulles served as US Secretary of State under Eisenhower. He was a significant figure in the early Cold War era, advocating an aggressive moralistic stance against communism throughout the world. As Secretary of State, Dulles spent considerable time building up NATO and forming other alliances as part of his strategy of controlling Soviet expansion. In the early 1950s, Dulles supported Eisenhower’s decision to direct the CIA to draft pans to overthrow the Iranian Prime Minister, Mohammed Mossadegh. This led directly to the coup d’état via Operation Ajax in support of Muhammad Reza, the Shah of Iran. In 1956, Dulles strongly opposed the Anglo-French invasion of Egypt in response to the Suez Canal. However, by 1958, he was an outspoken opponent of Nasser and stopped Nasser from receiving weapons from the United States. This policy seemingly backfired, enabling the Soviet Union to gain influence in the Middle East.
Bandung Conference, 1955
The Bandung Conference was a meeting of Asian and African states, most of which were newly independent, which took place in 1955 in Bandung, Indonesia. The 29 countries that participated at the conference aimed to promote Afro-Asian economic and cultural cooperation and to oppose colonialism by either the United States or the Soviet Union in the Cold War, or any other imperialistic nations. The conference was an important step toward the crystallization of the Non-Aligned Movement.
First Non-Aligned Summit, 1961 (not in book)
The Non-Aligned Movement is a group of states, which are not aligned formally with or against any major power bloc. The organization was founded in Belgrade in 1961, and was largely conceived by Yugoslavia’s president, Tito; Indonesia’s first president, Sukarno; Egypt’s second president, Nasser; Ghana’s first president Nkrumah; and India’s first prime minister, Nehru. All five leaders were advocates of a middle course for states in the developing world between the Western and Eastern blocs in the Cold War. The purpose of the first summit of the movement was to ensure the national independence, sovereignty, territorial integrity and security of non-aligned countries in their struggle against imperialism, colonialism, foreign aggression, interference, and against bloc politics.
Tito, Nehru, Sukarno, Nkrumah, Nasser (not in book)
They are the founding fathers of the Non-aligned movement. Their actions were known as “The Initiative of Five.” Six years after the Bandung Conference, an initiative by Yugoslav President Tito led to the First Non-Aligned Summit in 1961 in Belgrade.
Aswan Dam
The Aswan Dam project was started in 1902 under British authority as a means to improve the Nile-based irrigation system. After the coup d’état of 1952, Egyptian economic planners resurrected this long-standing scheme to construct a second dam across the Nile at Aswan. This search by Egypt to search for financial assistance to develop its agricultural base provided further background to the Suez Crisis. This project to build the Aswan Dam was viewed as having both political and economic advantages It would be the kind of spectacular achievement that would enhance the new regime’s prestige (Nasser’s prestige) among the Egyptian population, and it would also have very real economic benefits by increasing the amount of land that could be irrigated and by providing enough hydroelectric power to supply the needs of the entire country. However, the estimated construction costs of at least $1 billion were well beyond Egypt’s financial ability. The government therefore sought foreign assistance. In late 1955, the World Bank approved a loan package that involved US and British participation, and because of the irritation that Nasser had caused those two countries, required Egypt to accept certain conditions. While Nasser was deciding whether to accept the arrangement, the US government abruptly announced in July 1956 that it was withdrawing its loan offer. Eventually, Egyptian-Soviet ties were strengthened in the years after Suez. In 1958 the Soviet Union agreed to finance the Aswan Dam project as well as to provide Egypt with increased military and technical assistance. The dam was finally completed in 1970. The completion of the Aswan Dam allowed 650,000 feddans to be reclaimed as agricultural land. The undeniable benefits of the Aswan Dam, however, have been mitigated by a host of ecological side effects.
Suez Crisis, 1956
The Suez Crisis was a diplomatic and military confrontation in late 1956 between Egypt on one side, and Britain, France, and Israel on the other, with the United States, the Soviet Union, and the UN playing major roles in forcing Britain, France, and Israel to withdraw. The attack followed Nasser’s decision in July 1956 to nationalize the Suez Canal, after the withdrawal of an offer by Britain and the US to fund the building of the Aswan Dam. The aims of the attack were primarily to regain Western control of the canal and to remove Nasser from power. Less than a day after Israel invaded Egypt, Britain and France issues a joint ultimatum to Egypt and Israel, and then began to bomb Cairo. Anglo-French forces withdrew before the end of the year, but Israeli forces remained until 1957, prolonging the crisis. In 1957, the canal was fully reopened to shipping, but other repercussions followed. Pressure from the United States and the USSR at the UN and elsewhere forced the three allies to withdraw. As a result of outside pressure, Britain and France failed in their political and strategic aims of controlling the canal and removing Nasser from power.

The Suez Crisis had important consequences for all of the parties involved. Egypt’s military defeat was transformed into a political triumph for Nasser. Instead of being overthrown, he emerged from the crisis as an Egyptian and Pan-Arab hero. He had stood up to two former imperial powers and faced them down, the US and the USSR had defended Egypt’s sovereignty, and when the battlefield was cleared Egypt retained possession of the Suez Canal. Soviet prestige among the Arabs was also enhanced during the crisis and continued to grow when the Soviet’s replenished Egypt’s arsenal.
Anwar Sadat
Nasser’s successor, Anwar Sadat, endeavored to break the diplomatic stalemate with Israel and to chart a new direction for the Egyptian economy. In the process of pursuing these objectives, Sadat waged war, negotiated for peace, formed an alliance with the US, and reintroduced capitalist incentives into Egypt. Sadat’s partial reordering of Egypt’s economic policies represented a departure from the Nasserist model, and his foreign policy marked a sharp dramatic break from the goals Nasser had pursued. It was the failure of these ne policies to solve Egypt’s problems that created an environment in which Islamist opposition movements gained traction. Sadat encouraged capitalism and re-allianced with the West. Sadat’s high style of living and his cultivation of a Western lifestyle further distanced him from the Egyptian people and contributed to his unpopularity. Moreover, in 1973, the Arab world appeared to be united in its support for the Syrian-Egyptian military offensive against the occupying Israeli forces. However, President Sadat’s conclusion of a separate peace with Israel in 1979 shattered Arab solidarity and marked the end of the Nasserist vision of Pan-Arabism.
Nixon Doctrine (not in book)
The Nixon Doctrine states that the United States would assist in the defense and developments of allies and friends but would not undertake all the defense of the free nations of the world. This doctrine meant that each ally nation was in charge of its own security in general, but the United States would act as a nuclear umbrella when requested. The Doctrine argues for the pursuit of peace through a partnership with American allies. The Doctrine was applied by the Nixon administration in the Persian Golf region, with military aid to Iran and Saudi Arabia. The application of the Nixon Doctrine opened the floodgates of US military aid to allies in the Persian Gulf, and helped set the stage for the Carter Doctrine and for the subsequent direct US military involvement of the Gulf War and the Iraq War.
Carter Doctrine (not in book)
The Carter Doctrine was a policy proclaimed by Carter in his State of the Union Address in 1980. The Doctrine stated that the US would use military force if necessary to defend its national interests in the Persian Gulf region. The doctrine was a response to the USSRs invasion of Afghanistan in 1979, and was intended to deter the USSR from seeking hegemony in the Gulf. Three Cold War presidential doctrines—the Truman, Eisenhower, and Nixon Doctrines—played roles in the Carter Doctrine’s formulation. More specifically, in 1979, the Iranian Revolution and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan prompted the restatement of US interests in the region in the form of the Carter Doctrine.
Zbigniew Brzezinski (not in book)
Zbigniew Brzezinski was President Carter’s National Security Adviser. Brzezinski modeled the wording of the Carter Doctrine off of the wording of the Truman Doctrine. He specifically wrote the last and key sentence of the Doctrine that said “Let our position be absolutely clear: An attempt by any outside force to gain control of the Persian Gulf region will be regarded as an assault on the vital interests of the United States of America, and such an assault will be repelled by any means necessary, including military force.” Brzezinski insisted that the sentence be included in the speech to make it clear that the Soviets should stay away from the Persian Gulf.
Arab Socialism
The notion of Arab socialism was never articulated precisely, but it can be taken as representing the economic and social aspirations of Nasserism and Baʿthism, the state ideologies respectively of Egypt in the late 1950s and 1960s, and of Iraq and Syria from the 1960s. During the years following World War II, a widespread consensus developed among the educated middle classes and among the largely unofficial opposition in each of these states to the effect that the country's most urgent needs were national independence and economic development, and that the state was the natural vehicle to carry out the necessary transformations. After the revolutions of the 1950s and 1960s, this notion became an important part of the political discourse of the various successor regimes.

Apart from the various land reforms of the 1950s and the nationalization of the Suez Canal in 1956, it was not until the early 1960s that the nationalization of large private and foreign-owned companies took place, and the governments of all three states began to act more determinedly to bring the various sectors of the economy under state control. More stringent land reforms were introduced, and banking, insurance, foreign trade, and large industrial enterprises were all nationalized. This took place in Iraq under ʿAbd al-Salam Arif. In spite of its socialist rhetoric, the Baʿth's only further step in this direction was the nationalization of the Iraq Petroleum Company and its various subsidiaries in 1972. In fact, the considerable enhancement of Iraqi state power that the oil nationalization facilitated was only the most extreme example of what would turn out to be one of the salient features of Arab socialism, namely, that the concentration of economic power in the hands of a largely unaccountable political authority facilitated the emergence of increasingly repressive and dictatorial state structures.

It is clear, however, from the writings and speeches of Arab nationalists and Muslim Brothers in the 1950s that invocations of socialism were necessary for both groups to assert their progressive credentials and intentions; the aspiration for social justice, together with the sense that the state was the appropriate instrument to spearhead social and economic development, was almost universally shared at the time
Ba`ath
The Arab Socialist Baʿth Party was founded in Syria in the early 1940s. Its original ideology rested on the concept of an Arab nation defined not by race but by cultural reality. From the outset, Baʿthist ideologues viewed the role of Islam as contributing to the totality of the Arab peoples ’ experience. The party  eventually became a secularist identity. Three elements underlay the notion of a common Arab identity. These included a common history and unity of opposition to enemies, and the Arabic language. Finally there is Islam, which is seen not as a religion, but as a culture and spiritual experience for all Arabs. A serious political miscalculation came only fifteen years after Syrian independence, when Baʿthist leader al-Bitar tried to save the party from a downward political spiral by tying its destiny to the ill-fated United Arab Republic under Nasser. The Baʿth party came to power in Iraq in 1963. In Syria, the party took over in 1963 and has maintained almost continuous hegemony for over forty years.

Over time apparent organizational conflict became a conflict of competing ambition between two ambitious leaders, Hafez al-Assad and Saddam Hussein. Generally speaking, the Baʿth parties in Syria and Iraq sought to rule without sharing power. After eliminating their rivals and reducing the number of likely candidates for leadership, each party had a history of allying itself with small leftist wing. The Baʿth in Syria and Iraq gradually transformed itself into the supposed party of the masses by taking control of trade unions and popular organizations. As an apparatus of recruitment and mobilization, it also became a privileged channel of social advancement and the redistribution of the advantages associated with positions of power, a process that became typical of Saddam Hussein 's methods of control after the 1970s.
Hafiz al-Asad
In Syria, al-Asad seized power in 1970 and retained the presidency until his death in 200. He distrusted Saddam Husayn, Syria and Iraq became engaged in a smoldering rivalry for regional dominance in the 1970s, despite the fact that the two regimes had much in common. Al-Asad’s regime represented the rise of a new elite of rural origins at the expense of the established urban politicians and merchants. His regime was authoritarian, based its power on the military and the Ba’th Party. He was the sole ruler, held absolute power, and became the object of a personality cult. His regime adopted socialist economic policies and stood for egalitarian reform. Al-Asad and his comrades expressed common sentiments of resentment toward the United States for its failure to understand the Arab predicament and for its unwavering support of Israel.

In 1963 al-Asad and his fellow officers carried out a coup the brought the Ba’th Party back into power. Al-Asad used the military and the Ba’th Party as vehicles for his ascent to the presidency and once in power he established them as foundations for his regime.
`Abd al-Karim Qasim
Qasim was a nationalist Iraqi Army general who seized power in 1958 coup d’état, thereby, eliminating the Iraqi monarchy. In the bloody military coup, scores of people were killed, including King Faysal III, Prince Abd al-Ilah, and Nuri al-Sa’id. The British-installed Hashimite monarchy, a pillar of the Western alliance system, was terminated after thirty-seven years of existence. Qasim’s coup sent shock waves throughout the eastern Arab world. It ushered a decade of unstable military rule during which Iraq joined Egypt and Syria in proclaiming revolution at home and neutrality abroad. Qasim established a military dictatorship, with him as Prime Minister that lasted until 1963, when dissident factions within the military led by Colonel Abd al-Salam Arif, who assumed the title of president, toppled it. During his rule, Qasim proclaimed Iraq to be a republic, but it was a republic in which neither he nor his successors allowed elections to take place. Qasim at first used Communist support to counterbalance the Pan-Arab nationalists; then, when it appeared that the Communists were about to take over the state, he turned against them, and by 1960 he was well on his way to establishing a personal dictatorship. In the area of foreign policy, Qasim withdrew Iraq from the Baghdad Pact and established close ties with the Soviet Union and the Eastern bloc. Qasim refused to join the UAR; nevertheless, Pan-Arab dynamism continued to be a persistent feature in Iraqi politics.
Saddam Husayn
In Iraq, Saddam Husayn emerged as the political strongman in 1968, was officially proclaimed president in 1979, and retained his hold on power even after his country’s defeat in the Gulf War of 1991 and despite its struggles under an economic embargo that remained in effect up to the US invasion in 2003. He distrusted al-Asad, Syria and Iraq became engaged in a smoldering rivalry for regional dominance in the 1970s, despite the fact that the two regimes had much in common. Like al-Asad and his regime, Husayn represented the rise of a new elite of rural origins at the expense of the established urban politicians and merchants. His regime was authoritarian, based its power on the military and the Ba’th Party. He was the sole ruler, held absolute power, and became the object of a personality cult. His regime adopted socialist economic policies and stood for egalitarian reform. Husayn and his comrades expressed common sentiments of resentment toward the United States for its failure to understand the Arab predicament and for its unwavering support of Israel.
Yishuv, 1880s
• Yishuv, 1880s: the body of 25,000 Jewish residents in Palestine, before the establishment of the State of Israel.
Basel Congress, 1897:
• Basel Congress, 1897: First congress of the Zionist Organization, held in Basel, Switzerland. Formulated Political Zionist platform: Jewish settlement in Palestine (little immigration actually occurred before WWII)
aliyahs:
-aliyahs: waves of Jewish settlement in Palestine:
-1st aliyahs (descendents) (1882-1903): Supposed to be pure colonies: Zionist Jewish settlers from Europe (especially Eastern Europe and Yemen) planned to settle and do all the work themselves, but they found themselves struggling. Eventually, they got outside help (especially from Edmund Rothschild) to find work, resulting in a mixed colony: mixture of local/colonist labor. Essentially failed.
-2nd aliyahs (just before WWI): Determined to be a pure colony: Developed into economic separation between Zionist Jews and locals.
(1917) Balfour Declaration:
-(1917) Balfour Declaration: Britain established “National Homeland” for Jews in Palestine (Britain was officially in charge of Palestine, because of the Palestine Mandate), but nothing was allowed to be done to limit religious freedom of existing residents. British wanted to support American Jews and wanted to keep Russia out of war. Wanted to make the offer before Germany did.
Arab Executive, 1919-1928
• Arab Executive, 1919-1928: In response to 1918 British victory over Ottomans and British Occupation, Arab population began to organize and coordinate opposition to British policies. Seven Congresses based on a nationwide network of local Muslim-Christian Associations were held in Jerusalem, Jaffa, Haifa and Nablus. Despite broad public support the Congresses and their Executive Committee were never officially recognized by the British who claimed they were unrepresentative.
Supreme Muslim Council, 1921-1951:
• Supreme Muslim Council, 1921-1951: Independent council to supervise the religious affairs of its community, especially religious trusts (waqf), orphan funds, shariah courts, and appointing teachers and preachers in Mandate Palestine under British control, whom the High Commissioner could consult.
King Abdullah:
• King Abdullah: King of Transjordan under British authority, 1921-1946. King of independent Jordan, 1946-1951.
-Jewish Agency:
-Jewish Agency: Jewish Zionist community’s unofficial government
Sir Herbert Samuel:
-Sir Herbert Samuel: British commissioner that Jewish Agency had access to.
Shaw Commission, 1929
• Shaw Commission, 1929: British, sent out to resolve issues (Palestinian-Jewish conflicts, Conflict around temple wall in Jerusalem). Called attention to British immigration and land-purchase policies that gave Jews unfair advantages. Recommended that the British take greater care in protecting the rights and understanding the aspirations of the Arabs. The Shaw report was a blow to Zionists everywhere
Passfield White Paper, 1930:
• Passfield White Paper, 1930: Signified British rethinking of policy in Palestine. British had obligations to two communities: Jews and Palestinians
Great Arab Revolt
-Great Arab Revolt against British colonialism and mass Jewish immigration 1936-1939. Supported by King Abdullah. Big Great Revolt demonstrations were in urban areas, but revolt was largely peasant-based. Some women fought. British poured in about 20,000 troops (a lot for a total population of <1 million) to suppress Great Revolt.
Shaykh Izz al-Din al-Qassam:
-Shaykh Izz al-Din al-Qassam: led Great Arab Revolt.
kaffiya:
-kaffiya: Checkered head cloth that became Palestinian national headdress and the symbol of Palestinian peasantry/Palestinian nationalism (and evolved into fashionable scarves!)
Al-Husaynis and Nashashibis:
• Al-Husaynis and Nashashibis: Competed for leadership of Palestinians.
Peel Commission, 1937:
-Peel Commission, 1937: A commission sent by British to investigate and mitigate causes of revolt: FIRST proposal to divide territory into Jewish and Arab state! Jews in small section to the North. Nobody liked Peel Commission’s report: Palestinians considered partition an anathema (it was still ‘their country’ that was being divided), Jews thought their part was too small.
-White paper of 1939:
-White paper of 1939: Second British idea for Palestine: Limited Jewish immigration and said that there would be no Jewish state. British were preparing for war and knew they would need oil from other Arab states for WWII, so they were focused on securing relationships with Middle East, not with the Jews
Stern Gang
• Stern Gang: Militant Zionist group founded by Avraham "Yair" Stern in the British Mandate of Palestine, aiming to evict the British authorities from Palestine, allow unrestricted immigration of Jews and the formation of a Jewish state. Incorporated elements of both the left and the right.
-Irgun
-Irgun: a Zionist paramilitary group that said that every Jew had the right to enter Palestine and that only active retaliation by a Jewish armed force would deter the Arabs and ensure the Jewish state. Branded a terrorist organization by Britain and the Jewish Agency.
Dayr Yassin
-Dayr Yassin: a massacre by Stern Gang and Irgun, April 9 1948.
-al-nakbah
-al-nakbah: “The Catastrophe:” Palestinian perspective of Arab-Israeli War. Tons of Palestinian villages destroyed, 700,000 Palestinian refugees to neighboring countries
War of Independence:
-War of Independence: Israeli perspective of Arab-Israeli War. After that, an increase in Jewish immigration to Palestine
Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO):
-Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO): Multi-party, umbrella organization. Illegal under Israeli-occupied territory, but many were secretly associated
Yasser Arafat:
-Yasser Arafat: headed PLO.
-Fatah
-Fatah: Largest party of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). Strong involvement in revolutionary struggle through militant groups.
Oslo Accords, 1993
-Oslo Accords, 1993 between Palestinians/Israelis: PLO would acknowledge the state of Israel and pledge to reject violence, and Israel would recognize the (unelected) PLO as the official Palestinian authority, allowing Yasser Arafat, the leader of the PLO, to return to the West Bank.
Benny Morris, Ilan Pappé, Avi Shlaim:
-Benny Morris, Ilan Pappé, Avi Shlaim: Israeli “New Historians” who critically reexamine 1948 Israeli narrative of the Arab-Israeli War: Israelis used to frame the war as triumph of a small group of Zionists against strong opponents, who the British were supposedly helping. But new information has become available when archives opened: The Israelis were actually stronger.
Wahhabism
An ultra-conservative branch of Sunni Islam
Founded by Muhammad ibn Al-Wahhab
Was an example of self-generated purification
Believed in the responsibility of the Muslim to learn and obey the divine commandments as they were revealed in the Quran and the Hadith
Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab
1703-1792
Educated in Mecca and Medina
Founder of the Wahhabi movement
Preached and wrote about the uncompromising affirmation of tahwid, the oneness of God
Believed Sufi’s to be polytheists in their veneration of saints, apostates and deserved death
Insisted the Quran and the hadith were the only reliable sources through which the divine can be comprehended
Ibn Taymiyya
Medieval Theologian and member of the Hanbal school of thought
Teachings inspired the Wahhbi movement
Sa`udis
Name given to followers of Muhammad ibn Saud
Aligned themselves with the Wahhabi movement, to become a powerful politico-religious force that expanded through northern Arabia
Captured Mecca in 1803
Forces were dispersed by Muhammad Ali’s Egyptian troops
Eventually would have a revival of the Wahhabi movement in 1902 under Abd al-Aziz ibn Saud (1881-1953), who would seize Riyadh and found the Saudi State in line with Wahhabi doctrine, bringing the tribes of the Najd under his authority and gaining independence in the Treaty of Jiddah
Salaf
Arabic word for ancestor
Term used for the Salafiyyah movement, a reformist movement that is tied to the study of the early Islamic community – the surest guide ro divinely approved behavior
Ex: practices incorporated since the time of the Rashidun, could be reinterpreted for new circumstances according to Abduh. And called for the reopening of the gate of ijtihad, the application of informed human reason to new situations
Sunna
Custom
The practice of the Prophet and the early Islamic community that became an exemplary precedent for all Muslims
Sunnas are found in the hadith
Movements based on the purification of the Islamic religion based on the reconstitution to the early Islamic community through the Quran and the hadith
Syncretism
The combining of different (often seemingly contradictory) beliefs
Melding practices of various schools of thought, which asserts an underlying unity and allowing for an inclusive approach to other faiths
Islamic modernism
Ideological religious movement
The critical reexaminiation of the classical conceptions and methods, restricting Islam to its basis in the Quran and the Sunna
Some linked linked aspects of Islamic tradition with Western ideas and practices and claims western practices as originally being derived from Islam
al-Tahtawi
(1801-1873) Egyptian Islamic modernist; Originally from a wealthy landowning family in Upper Egypt until their lands were confiscated under Muhammad Ali’s land reform
Became an Imam, or religious guide, and accompanied students on one of the earliest missions to Paris, which influenced
Founded the School of Languages in 1835, and acted as director for 15 years, translating European works into Arabic
Advocated of Islamic Modernism, the adoption of Western systems and Islamic tradition
pan-Islam/pan-Islamic
A political movement advocating the unity of Muslims under one Islamic state, unified by one religion
Sayyid Jamal al-Din al-Afghani (1839-1897)
Political activist and Islamic ideologist
Called for direct action in the name of Islamic solidarity
Advocate of Pan-Islamic unity as a way to respond to western pressure
Believed the Christian West was dominant because Islam had fallen into a state of decadence and stagnation
Called for the rediscovery of the true principles of the Islamic faith through unity of the ummah, which brought Islamic civilization greatness in the past, and action by resisting European exploitation and revive a common sense of purpose through an effort
Al-Urwa al-Wuthqa
Arabic newspaper in Paris that was founded in 1884 by al-Afghani and Muhammad Abduh
“The Indissoluble Bond”
Emphasized the importance of religious based political solidarity
Called for the return to the original principles and ideas of Islam, and for greater unity among Islamic people
Ummah
The universal Islamic community
In the twentieth century the term also came to mean nation
The Ummah was stagnated and weak because of a lack of unity, local superstitions, and administrative practices, according to pan-Islamists such as Abduh, al-Afghani, and al-Wahhab
Rashid Rida (1865-1935)
Disciple of Muhammad Abduh
Believed in the Islamic state
Founder of Al-Manar, i.e. the Beacon
Believed the flaws of Islam could be corrected by returning to the true principles of Islam, Salafiyya Islam, which purged Islam from impurities and Western influences
Al-Manar
Journal founded by Rashid Rida
The Beacon
Rida sought accommodation between Islamic principles and practical innovation, but the journal became more protective of tradition than reform
Taqlid
Islamic legal term which means to follow or imitate
One should follow a religious expert in religious laws or commandment as he has derived then, not necessarily examining the scriptural basis or reasoning of that decision
Taqlid or the blind imitation of the past was one of the reasons for the weakness of Muslim society and Western colonialism
Maslaha
Concept in traditional Islamic law to permit or prohibit something on the basis of whether or not it serves the public welfare
Basis used by Muhammad Abduh for reconciling modern culture with the tradition of Islamic law
Ulama
Literally, “those learned in the ways of Islam”
The collective term for the members of the Islamic religious establishment, including preachers, judges, teachers, scholars of religion, and administrators of the religious hierarchy
ijma’
Consensus of legal scholars or of the Muslim community as a whole on a matter of religious law
· Hassan al-Banna
Egyptian (1906-1949) Islamic scholar and school teacher, founded the Muslim Brotherhood in 1928 and turned it into a political movement in 1933
Proclaimed Islam as a comprehensive system of life and the Qur’an as the only acceptable constitution and law.
Rejected secularism and Arab Nationalism
Assasinated by Egyptian secret police in Feb 1949
· Society of the Muslim Brothers
founded by Al-Banna, it began in Ismailayyah, Egypt in 1928, and then grew into an international body of sub-groups (such as HAMAS).
Began initially as religious and philanthropic society, turned political (though not formally a political party at first) in reaction to a rise in secularism as well as a decline in the Arab World (particularly following War of 1967)
Membership grew almost like a “state within a state” rapidly as the network reached out across Egypt, and the Egyptian government responded by dissolving the Brotherhood in 1948 and founder Al-Banna was gunned down in 1949.
Advocated pan-Islamism and actively opened branches starting in the 1930s in Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Jordan, Iraq and Yemen, et. al.
· Special Unit / Secret Apparatus
… not sure what this is referring to, if someone has it in their notes.
Could refer to mukhabarat – the intelligence agency that is common in many Arab states such as Egypt, Jordan, Syria, Iraq, Libya
In Egypt- GIS- General Intelligence Service
Known for close monitoring and crackdown on dissidence
· Hasan al-Hudaybi
General guide (terminology in the MB- Muslim Brotherhood for leader) following the assassination of Hassan al-Banna
· Sayyid Qutb
Egyptian poet and Islamist theorist and member of the MB
Convicted of plotting the assassination of Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser and executed by hanging in 1966
The assassination attempt was in 1954, Nasser used to attempt to crackdown on Islamist organizations, esp. the Brotherhood and imprisoned Qutb (he was tortured)
During this time he wrote Milestones, the most polemical book regarding political islam
In his youth visited the United States and was shocked by its decadence, materialism and sexuality. It has been suggested that the racism he would have encountered during that time influenced his hatred
· Milestones
Islamist ideological book written by Sayyid Qutb while imprisoned and tortured by Egyptian police.
He says most of the world, especially the Western world is in a state of jahiliyyah – or ignorance, like the ignorance that afflicted the world before Islam
Called for believers to turn away from existing society and create a model umah that would establish true Islam
This revolutionary tract was used by evidence by Egyptian prosecutors in his death trial , although the book does not explicitly call for an armed overthrow of the government
· Takfir wa higra
“excommunication (Takfir- to declare someone a kufr/unbeliever) and exodus”
popular name given to radical Islamist group Jama’at al-Muslimin, the offshoot of the Muslim brotherhood founded by Shukri Mustafa in the 1960s
· Hamas
Ḥarakat al‐Muqāwamah al‐Islāmīyah (Movement of Islamic Resistance) is the Muslim Brotherhood offshoot in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, established in 1987
It’s armed wing is ‘Izz al-Din al-Qassam Forces
Until the intifāḋah, Islam rarely constituted the primary justification for the liberation struggle of the Palestinians; rather, this was maintained in the name of Arab or Palestinian nationalism.
Organization designated as a terrorist organization by the US, illegal in Israel, its founder is in jail
Its rapid popularity is due in part to growing frustration and despair and to the political legitimacy it had gained by its anti‐Israeli commitment, but also to its capacity to mobilize at the same time the most traditional sectors of the society.
· Hizbollah
In Lebanon, Political and social movement founded in the early 1980s seeking to transform Lebanon into an Islamic state, supporters are the Shii clans in the Bekaa valley and southern Beirut
Clandestine branch- Islamic Jihad
Declared jihad against foreign (US, French) influence in Lebanon in 1985, responsible for several attacks against American, French and Israeli forces
Has been credited with the departure of Israel from Lebanese soil in 2000 , ending a twenty-two-year Israeli occupation, and its members have been rendered national heroes.
Closely linked with Iranian division
· Welfare Party
Turkish Islamist political organization established in 1983 as heir to National Order Party and National Salvation Party, which were banned from politics
· Justice and Development Party
known in Turkey by its Turkish acronym, AKP (Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi), was formed by a group of reformist Islamic politicians including Recip Tayyip Erdoğan (Current PM)
claims to not be directly Islamic and rather just socially conservative, but majority of AKP members are observant Muslims (e.g. wives of party members wear headscarves which is a big deal in a secular place like Turkey where headscarf bans in public place)
In 2002 AKP won 2/3 seats in Parliament, forming single-party government (AKP was only founded in 2001)
· Erdogan
PM of Turkey since 2003, chairman of Justice and Development Party (AKP)
Considered most influential leader since Ataturk—except Erdogan is reversing Erdogan’s policies, particularly his foreign policy vision rests on Neo-Ottomanism, where Turkey should maintain and increase its presence in the lands formerly ruled by the Ottoman Empire.
· Islamic Revolution
Revolution in which a coalition of forces opposed to the Western-oriented Pahlavi regime and dominated by Shii Muslim clerics overthrew the government of Muhammad Reza Shah Pahlavi . The acknowledged leader was Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini .
Causes
modernization/westernization programs undertaken since the 1920s
the economic and social reform programs of the 1963 White Revolution
state control of religious institutions, which deprived clerics of power and income
the perceived corruption and extreme wealth of the shah and the ruling class.
· Ali Shariati
He believed that Western imperialism wished to transform the masses into slaves. Islam was, in his view, the answer to both Marxism and capitalism.
Sharīʿatī was always looking for what was fresh and original in Islam and had little patience with traditional formulas and modes of thinking.
In the matter of institutionalized religion, Sharīʿatī believed that ijtihād is the purview not merely of the experts in religious law but of every individual. All persons have the responsibility to exercise ijtihād on substantive, nontechnical matters.
· Frantz Fanon
French/Algerian philosopher/revolutionary and writer whose works are influenctial in post-colonial studies
Wrote “Wretched of the Earth”
defends the right for a colonized people to use violence to struggle for independence, arguing that human beings who are not considered as such shall not be bound by principles that apply to humanity, in their attitude towards the colonizer
For Fanon, the anticolonial struggle was also a cultural struggle with liberation as its goal.
· Westoxification
o Persian pejorative term refers to loss of Iranian cultural identity through the identity through the adoption and imitation of Western models and criteria in education
· Ayatollah Khomeini
Iranian Shīʿī cleric and leader of the Islamic Revolution which overthrew Mohamed Reza Pahlavi, the Shaw of Iran
After revolution, K became the country’s Supreme Leader, highest ranking political and religious authority of the nation, he held til death in 1989
Spent 14 years in exile in Najaf, Iraq
· Vilayat-i-faqih
In Shi’a where Islam gives an Islamic jurist custodianship over the people.
Iran is first nation-state in history to apply absolute vilayat-i-faqih in government
“guardenship” of the faqih in Islamic Repub of Iran is represented by Supreme leader, who must be a cleric, but also leading bodies, luke Council of Guardians
· Council of Guardians
In Iran,12-member council wields power and influence in Iran
Composed of 6 faqihs-jurists
In charge of interpreting the Constitution of Iran
Subaltern:
• Subaltern: People who are outside, marginalized, without access, at the receiving end of power. Modern connotation: those suffering under globalization.
Antonio Gramsci:
-Antonio Gramsci: devised concept of “Subaltern”
Subaltern Studies Group:
• Subaltern Studies Group: Intellectual group in India interested in exploring the non-elite actors in Asia.
• social movement: A large informal grouping that has an agenda for promoting, resisting, or reversing a social change
social movement:
Charles Tilly:
• Charles Tilly: Focused attention on social movements as a phenomenon with a pattern of campaign, repertoire, and performance through which ordinary people participate in politics (more effective than regulated participation, such as voting)
-Campaign
-Campaign: Sustained public effort to make claims for what you want on the public authorities
-Repertoire
-Repertoire: A set of slogans, memes, political action.
-Performance
-Performance: Concerted public representation of social movement group (demonstration of organization, commitment, etc.)
-bazaars
-bazaars: a type of Iranian local market, at which workers can sell niche goods.
(1882) Coalheavers’ strike, Port Said:
• (1882) Coalheavers’ strike, Port Said: Labor movement for better working conditions, but also supporting Egyptian nationalist ‘Urabi Rebellion
Central Council of Iranian Trade Unions:
• Central Council of Iranian Trade Unions: formed in the 1940s, brought together many different unions from different labor sectors. Iran had an early oil history (1924)
Tudeh Party
• Tudeh Party: Iranian Communist Party (intellectuals who became involved in working class issues) and formed Central Council of Iranian Trade Unions. Involved in nationalist politics. Supported Moseh Deq, even though he was not a member of the party. Heavily repressed by the Shah when he returns to power.
Mahalla al-Kubra:
• Mahalla al-Kubra: Egyptian strikers, 1947. Government violently repressed strikes (even peaceful ones, like sit-ins)
Misr Spinning and Weaving Company, Kafr al-Dawwar:
• Misr Spinning and Weaving Company, Kafr al-Dawwar: Labor Strikes, from 1970s to today, resisting privatization
Egyptian Trade Union Federation:
• Egyptian Trade Union Federation: The only Trade Union in Egypt, effectively controlled by the state, until the January 2011 protests
Egyptian Federation of Independent Trade Unions:
• Egyptian Federation of Independent Trade Unions: Independent, rather than state-controlled trade unions, created during the January 2011 protests; may have signaled the end of state control of trade unionism in Egypt
Qasim Amin
• Qasim Amin: Author who advocated for women’s rights, companionship-based marriage for the sake of the husband and the nation, early 1900s.
Bahithat al-Badiya
• Bahithat al-Badiya: Female author who advocated for women’s rights for the sake of women
Huda Sha`arawi:
• Huda Sha`arawi: Influential Egyptian feminist, author, and philanthropist: Led an Egyptian nationalist protest of veiled women (the first of its kind) in 1919. Attended the meeting of the International Alliance for Women in Rome (1923). She and the rest of the delegation returned to Egypt unveiled, and many women followed their example. Did her own clothes shopping.
Wafdist Women’s Central Committee:
-Wafdist Women’s Central Committee: Egyptian committee led by Huda Sha’arwi, which promoted women’s rights by giving them a venue to express political ideas.
National Council for Women (Egypt):
• National Council for Women (Egypt): A women’s group under the Egyptian government aimed to ensure women’s political participation
Suzanne Mubarak
• Suzanne Mubarak: Mubarak’s wife, who defended (and also kept under state control) the Women’s Movement in Egypt during her time.
Halide Edib
• Halide Edib: Turkish woman involved in Turkish national liberation struggle, illustrating a move from a protected, covered woman to one fully participating in the nation.
Women’s People Party (Turkey)
Women’s People Party (Turkey): A political group of women
-In Turkey, the family law code was secularized, veiling was discouraged. Women had increased participation, but husbands still made major decisions in families, so they were not completely empowered.
General Union of Palestinian Women
• General Union of Palestinian Women: The official representation of women within the Palestinian Liberation Organization, aimed to give women an active role in society
Patriotic Women’s League (Iran), 1918:
• Patriotic Women’s League (Iran), 1918: an illegal political women’s group
-Bahrain
-Bahrain: A small Island country in the Persian gulf that has been affected by the Arab Spring. It is a constitutional monarchy and the King is Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa. Around 65-70% of Bahrainis are Shia while the ruling family is Sunni.
Al Khalifa Family
-Al Khalifa Family: The ruling family of Bahrain who are Sunni although the majority of Muslims in Bahrain are Shia.
GCC
-GCC: Gulf Cooperation Council is a political and economic union of the Arab states bordering the Persian Gulf and located on or near the Arabian Peninsula, namely Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and United Arab Emirates. Jordan and Morocco have been invited to join the council.
Khaled Said
-Khaled Said: Khaled Mohamed Saeed was a young Egyptian man who died after being arrested by Egyptian police. Photos of his disfigured corpse spread throughout online communities and incited outrage over allegations that he was beaten to death by Egyptian security forces. A prominent Facebook group, "We are all Khaled Said” brought attention to his death and contributed to growing discontent in the weeks leading up to the Egyptian Revolution of 2011.
SCAF – Supreme Council of the Armed Forces
is the governing body of 21 senior officers in the Egyptian military. As a consequence of the Egyptian Revolution of 2011, SCAF took the power to govern Egypt from its departing President Hosni Mubarak on 11 February 2011, and relinquished power on 30 June 2012 upon the start of Mohamed Morsi's term as President.
Muhammad Husayn Tantawi:
-Muhammad Husayn Tantawi: is an Egyptian Field Marshal and former statesman. He was the commander-in-chief of the Egyptian Armed Forces and, as Chairman of the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces, was the de facto head of state from the ouster of Hosni Mubarak on 11 February 2011 to the inauguration of Mohamed Morsi as President of Egypt on 30 June 2012. Tantawi served in the government as minister of defense and military production from 1991 until Morsi ordered Tantawi to retire on 12 August 2012.
Mohammad al Morsi:
-Mohammad al Morsi: Is the current President of Egypt taking over as president after Hosni Mubarak and acting head of state Muhammad Tantawi. Morsi was a member of the parliament and is a leading member of the Muslim Brotherhood.
1979 Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty:
- 1979 Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty: The peace treaty between Egypt and Israel was signed after Egyptian President Anwar El Sadat's visit to Israel in 1977 after intense negotiation. The main features of the treaty were mutual recognition, cessation of the state of war that had existed since the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, normalization of relations and the complete withdrawal by Israel of its armed forces and civilians from the Sinai Peninsula which Israel had captured during the Six-Day War in 1967. Egypt agreed to leave the area demilitarized. The agreement also provided for the free passage of Israeli ships through the Suez Canal, and recognition of the Strait of Tiran and the Gulf of Aqaba as international waterways. The agreement notably made Egypt the first Arab state to officially recognize Israel.
Hizballah:
-Hizballah: is a Shia Islamic Militant and political party based in Lebanon. It receives financial and political support from Iran and Syria, and its Parliamentary wing is regarded as a resistance movement throughout much of the Arab and Muslim worlds. Many countries recognize them as a terrorist organization either in whole or in part. Hezbollah was conceived by Muslim clerics and funded by Iran following the Israeli invasion of Lebanon, and was primarily formed to offer resistance to the Israeli occupation and its leaders were inspired by Ayatollah Khomeni.
The Muslim Brotherhood
- The Muslim Brotherhood: is the Arab world's most influential and one of the largest Islamic movements, and is the largest political opposition organization in many Arab states. Founded in Egypt in 1928as a Pan-Islamic, religious, political, and social movement by the Islamic scholar and schoolteacher Hassan al-Banna. Its ideas had gained supporters throughout the Arab world and influenced other Islamist groups. The Brotherhood's stated goal is to instill the Quraan and Sunnah as the "sole reference point for ...ordering the life of the Muslim family, individual, community ... and state." The organization seeks to make Muslim countries become Islamic caliphates, which includes the isolation of women and non-Muslims from public life.The movement is also known for engaging in political violence. They were responsible for creating Hamas, a U.S. designated terrorist organization. Following the 2011 Egyptian revolution and fall of Hosni Mubarak, the Muslim Brotherhood group was legalized.
Salafis
- Salafis: is a movement among Sunni Muslims named by its proponents in reference to the Salaf ("predecessors" or "ancestors"), the earliest Muslims considered to be examples of Islamic practice. At other times, Salafism is deemed as the hybridation between Wahhabism and other movements which have taken place since the 1960s. Salafism has become associated with literalist, strict and puritanical approaches to Islam and, in the West, with the Salafi Jihadis who adopt violent jihad against civilians as a legitimate expression of Islam. Just who or what groups and movements qualify as Salafi remains in dispute.
Egyptian Trade Union Federation:
- Egyptian Trade Union Federation: The Egyptian Trade Union Federation was, until 30 January 2011, the sole trade union federation in Egypt. On 30 January 2011, as part of the January 2011 protests, a meeting convened in Tahrir Square led to the formation of the Federation of Egyptian Trade Unions in response to the effective State control of the Egyptian Trade Union Federation. It is thought that this has signaled the end of State control of Trade Unionism in Egypt.
Al-Mahalla al-Kubra:
- Al-Mahalla al-Kubra: a large industrial and agricultural city in Egypt, located in the middle of the Nile Delta. It is known for its dominant textile industry. It is the largest city of the Gharbia Governorate and the second largest in the Nile Delta. Since 2006 is has been a city that has witnessed many protests by workers in the textile industry. Clashes between protestors supporting or opposing the Muslim Brotherhood on November 28 2012 left over 100 people injured.On December 7, the city declared itself autonomous from Egypt, as workers and students, declaring themselves independent from the "Muslim Brotherhood State," cut rail lines and blocked entrances to the city. Protestors stormed the city council and announced their intentions to replace it with a revolutionary council.
“Blue Bra Girl”:
-“Blue Bra Girl”: In a powerful and graphic video seen around the world, Egyptian soldiers were seen beating and dragging a woman along the street during a protest. Her clothing was ripped by helmeted soldiers, her blue bra clearly on show as a soldier stomped on her. The image of her prone, beaten body shocked the country, and the outpouring of anger was both internal and international. She quickly became a symbol for Egyptian protesters trying to end the country’s military power.
National Council for Women
- National Council for Women: is an American non-profit umbrella organization of women's organizations. It has a membership of 11 million women through its 240 member organizations.
Suzanne's Law
- "Suzanne's Law" requiring local police to notify the National Crime Information Center when someone between 18 and 21 is reported missing was signed into law by President Bush as part of the national "Amber Alert" bill.