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35 Cards in this Set
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Quintus Fabius Maximus Cunctator
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Second Punic War 218-202
Fabius chosen as emergency dictator under constitution for a 6 month term. Argued that the only way to defeat Hannibal was to wear him down gradually and not confront him directly. Idea considered un-Roman, two consuls replaced him and lost an army of 80,000 to Hannibal at the battle of Canae, allowing him to consolidate control over southern Italy. Fabius served as consul thrice more and his policy was adopted to fight Hannibal. Led Roman army in Italy while fighting went on in Spain |
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Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus
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Appointed leader of Roman forces in Spain when his father and brother were killed in 211 during the 2nd Punic War.
Broke precedent because he had not held a consulship nor a praetorship. Very imaginative and brilliant Roman commander. 206 - Decisive victory at Ilipa saw the end of Carthaginian dominance in Spain Hailed as "imperator" a title of honor after victory 205 - Elected consul even though he had never been praetor 204 - Set off for Africa and beat Hannibal at the Battle of Zama in 202, ending the 2nd Punic War. Awarded the name Africanus |
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Marcus Porcius Cato
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(234-149BC)
Spearheaded the opposition to the spread of Greek influence to Rome in the 2nd century BC. 195 - Won consulship - commanded for the year in Spain. Was at Greece with the Roman army which defeated Antiochus at Thermopylae. 184 – Elected as a censor and revived the traditional role of the office as a guardian of public morals. Stood out as the figurehead of resistance to the influx of ideas from Greece and to luxurious living and corruption for the next 35 years. In his final years obsessed with the destruction of Carthage, helped create the atmosphere that led to the city’s final destruction. Wrote the first history of Rome in Latin and the earliest surviving treatise on agriculture, De Agricultura |
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Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus
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Gracchi a noble family with five consulships. Tiberius and Gaius’ mother, Cornelia, was daughtor of Scipio Africanus
Tiberius Gracchus elected a tribune in December 134. passed laws through the concilium plebes and could veto, on behalf of the people, any acts of the magistrates and any decree of the senate. Tiberius wanted to achieve land reform. wanted the restoration and consolidation of the small landowner whose position was being undermined by the growth of large estates and who was, therefore, being lost for military service (for which landownership was a precondition) Land reform centered on the ager publicus, land owned by the state. Theoretically there was a maximum allocation land for any individual but many citizens had acquired much more. Tiberius proposed that they should surrender the extra in return for a formal confirmation of their right to the rest. Surrendered land would be distributed among the poor in small plots and Given an inalienable right to this land. Thus protected from being bought out by neighbors or retained for military service. Used the concilium plebes in many nontraditional ways - Showed little regard for the senate - Did not consult with senate over his proposals - Suggested that treasure from the bequeathed Pergamum be used to provide money grants for those receiving allotments and that the concilium should discuss the future of its income, not the senate, intruded on the traditional role of the senate as the body responsible for foreign affairs. - Announced he would stand for a second tribunate Gained support of the plebs but alienated the ruling class. The Roman state valued precedent above all things. 133 – Tiberius murdered in a scuffle between the senate, led by the pontifex maximus, and the concilium in an attempt to stop him from running for a second term. |
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Gaius Sempronius Gracchus
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123 – Gaius elected a tribune. Charismatic orator. Described in Plutarh’s Life as a great orator.
Gaius more shrewd than his brother. Began by strengthening his power base. Stabilized corn prices to give access to cheap grain for poorer citizens. Attempted to alleviate land hunger by setting up new citizen colonies within Italy. Wished to move power away from the senate towards the popular assemblies. Courted the equites, the equestrians. Gaius initiated road-building projects in Italy for equestrians and auctioned off the right to raise revenues in Asia to them. 149 – Allowed equestrians to participate in the courts. Successfully elected to a second tribunate, but the Senate took his power base when Gaius tried to placate allied cities with promises of citizenship that Romans didn’t like. Murdered when a consul Opimius offered the weight of his head in gold in exchange for it. |
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Hannibal
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218BC – Italy unexpectedly invaded from the north by a Carthaginian army led by Hannibal, the son of Hamilcar.
After the end of the First Punic War, Carthage under Hamilcar energentically built up a new empire in Spain. Hannibal, after succeeding his father, took Saguntum, a Roman allied city in 219, and Rome declared war. Both sides decided to begin offensively, Hannibal leading his forces through the Alps to NE Italy, and consul Publius Cornelius Scipio sailing towards N. Spain. Hannibal lost 1/3 of his army crossing the alps, but the Celts rallied around him as liberator when he got there with his remaining 25,000 troops. First major encounter with Romans at Trebia, over half the Roman army was lost and with it the north of Italy 217 – Hannibal made it to central italy, lured a large Roman army into the narrow plain between Lake Trasimene and the mountains and then slaughtered it. Consul Gaius Flaminius and 15,000 men died. 216 – Battle of Cannae 80,000 troops routed by Hannibal and all but 14,500 wiped out – Hannibal consolidated his position in southern Italy. Captured Capua, second city of Italy. Hannibal did not want to capture Rome, just to humiliate her and get Carthage’s territory back and reduce Rome to control of Latium 211 – Hannibal finally marched on Rome as he saw how resolutely the Romans fought, but eventally he retreated. Hannibal now on the dfensive and had to withdraw to the south of Italy each winter. Hannibal’s brother Hasdrubal marched from Spain to try and break the deadlock, but was intercepted in the north of Italy by both consuls and defeated at the battle of the River Metaurus in 207. Hannibal unable to break out of southern Italy. BATTLE OF ZAMA – 202 – showdown between Scipio and Hannibal – Roman cavalry played a major part in victory for the first time – Hannibal’s army destroyed and Carthage was reduced to her territory in Africa, from which she was forbidden to expand and she was burdened with an indemnity of 10,000 talents to be paid over fifty years. Rome got her empire in Spain. |
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Philip V
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215 – Hannibal made an alliance with Philip V of Macedon
201 – King of Pergamum, Attalus, came to Rome to appeal for help against the intrusions of Philip. Senate persuaded the assemblies that war was justified. Official pretext for war – Rome was protecting the liberty of the Greeks against Macedonian expansionism. Rome aware Greek city states more sophisticated and seemed to have no interest in the annexation of Greek territory. War entrusted to Titus Quinctius Flamininus – a commander so effective against Hannibal that he had won consulship in 198 when still only 30. Command in Greece for three more years after that. Destroyed Philip’s army at Cynoscephalae in Thessaly in 197, and proclaimed that Rome intended to leave Greece free and independent. Each city now dependent on Rome for its protection. |
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Antiochus III
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Aetolian League had hoped to resume control over a number of cities surrendered by Philip which it used to control. Sought the support of Seleucid king Antiochus III.
Antiochus III – revived the Seleucid kingdom and in 196 had crossed into Thrace, an area once held by the Seleucids. 192 – Antiochus agreed to support the Aetolian League and crossed with a small army to the Greek mainland – Romans reacted vigorously. 191 – Romans defeated him easily at Thermopylae with an army twice his size – and again the following year in Asia at magnesia near Sardis. Romans in Asia, plundered a lot, but did not annex. Main aim to perpetuate control by building up dependent allies. Antiochus was excluded from the Aegean by depriving him of all his possessions along the Aegean coastline and restricting him to the east of the Taurus River. Disbanded his navy. |
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Battle of Cannae
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216 – Battle of Cannae Idea of avoiding straightforward war “un-Roman” – after Fabius’ term of office ended, 2 new consuls appointed to replace him and resume the traditional policy of direct confrontation. 80,000 troops routed by Hannibal and all but 14,500 wiped out – Hannibal consolidated his position in southern Italy. Captured Capua, second city of Italy.
Renewed faith in Fabius' tactics |
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Battle of Zama
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BATTLE OF ZAMA – 202 – showdown between Scipio and Hannibal – Roman cavalry played a major part in victory for the first time – Hannibal’s army destroyed and Carthage was reduced to her territory in Africa, from which she was forbidden to expand and she was burdened with an indemnity of 10,000 talents to be paid over fifty years. Rome got her empire in Spain.
Scipio awarded the name ‘Africanus’ in recognition of his victory. |
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First Punic War
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265BC – Hiero, ruler of Syracuse, tries to dislodge Italian mercenaries (Mamertines) from the city of Messana.
Mamertines appeal to Rome for help and to Carthage as well. Rome’s popular assembly, the comitia centuriata, committed Rome to action for fear of Carthage gaining a foothold on the peninsula, the only example known when the citizen body, rather than the senate, set in hand a war. From 264-261 the war was concentrated in Sicily, because Rome had no navy to fight with Carthage on the sea. War was in a stalemate. Rome got Hiero to ally with them and take the Carthaginian city of Acragas (entire Greek population sold into slavery). After this Rome decides to build a fleet. First naval battle at Mylae off the coast of Sicily in 260 – Roman victory. Followed by more crushing success off Cape Ecnomus (on the southern coast of Sicily) in 256. The invention of the corvus (wooden gangway that Romans used to board enemy ships) 256 – Troops landed in N. Africa and moved towards Carthage. Carthaginians import Spartan mercenary to train their army and crushed the Roman invaders in 255 with their cavalry. 249 – Major Roman defeat at the Battle of Drepana off the west coast of Sicily and almost all the remaining fleet destroyed in a storm. War now became one of attrition 242 – Final naval fleet raised by the Romans, defeated the last of Carthaginian forces, and Carthage ceded Sicily to Rome, although Syracuse remained independent |
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Second Punic War
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225BC – Central Italy was faced with an invasion of Celtic war-bands. Romans crushed them at the Battle of Telemon and conquered the Po valley and established Roman colonies at Cremona and Placentia in 218.
218BC – Italy unexpectedly invaded from the north by a Carthaginian army led by Hannibal, the son of Hamilcar. After the end of the First Punic War, Carthage under Hamilcar energentically built up a new empire in Spain. Hannibal, after succeeding his father, took Saguntum, a Roman allied city in 219, and Rome declared war. Both sides decided to begin offensively, Hannibal leading his forces through the Alps to NE Italy, and consul Publius Cornelius Scipio sailing towards N. Spain. Hannibal lost 1/3 of his army crossing the alps, but the Celts rallied around him as liberator when he got there with his remaining 25,000 troops. First major encounter with Romans at Trebia, west of Roman colony Placentia – over half the Roman army was lost and with it the north of Italy 217 – Hannibal made it to central italy, lured a large Roman army into the narrow plain between Lake Trasimene and the mountains and then slaughtered it. Consul Gaius Flaminius and 15,000 men died. In an emergency the constitution allowed a dictator to be appointed for a limited, six-month, term of office. QUINTUS FABIUS MAXIMUS was chosen and argued that the only policy was to avoid the fixed battles of which Hannibal was clearly master and instead wear him down gradually. 216 – Battle of Cannae Idea of avoiding straightforward war “un-Roman” – after Fabius’ term of office ended, 2 new consuls appointed to replace him and resume the traditional policy of direct confrontation. 80,000 troops routed by Hannibal and all but 14,500 wiped out – Hannibal consolidated his position in southern Italy. Captured Capua, second city of Italy. Hannibal did not want to capture Rome, just to humiliate her and get Carthage’s territory back and reduce Rome to control of Latium Now policy of Fabius became dominant – FABIUS SERVED AS CONSUL 3 TIMES BY 209 211 – Hannibal finally marched on Rome as he saw how resolutely the Romans fought, but eventally he retreated. Hannibal now on the dfensive and had to withdraw to the south of Italy each winter. Hannibal’s brother Hasdrubal marched from Spain to try and break the deadlock, but was intercepted in the north of Italy by both consuls and defeated at the battle of the River Metaurus in 207. Hannibal unable to break out of southern Italy. Significant fighting done in Spain. Romans enjoyed unbroken success until 211, when three separate Carthaginian armies converged on Roman forces (one half led by Gnaeus Scipio and the other by his brother Publius). Both Scipios killed, but PUBLIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO II (known as Scipio) was appointed to take command. It was a major break with precedent as he had not yet held either a consulship or praetorship. Scipio was “perhaps the most brilliant Roman commander to date, energetic, charismatic, and imaginative.” (388) 209 – Scipio captured New Carthage, a supply base, by launching a surprise attack across a lagoon of low water. 206 – Decisive victory at ilipa and Gades, saw the end of Carthaginian dominance in Spain. Scipio hailed as imperator a title of honor offered by troops immediately after a victory. 205 – Scipio elected consul, even though he had never been praetor, a normal preconditio for election. 204 – Scipio set off for Africa, and his first success there forced the Carthaginians to recall Hannibal. BATTLE OF ZAMA – 202 – showdown between Scipio and Hannibal – Roman cavalry played a major part in victory for the first time – Hannibal’s army destroyed and Carthage was reduced to her territory in Africa, from which she was forbidden to expand and she was burdened with an indemnity of 10,000 talents to be paid over fifty years. Rome got her empire in Spain. Scipio awarded the name ‘Africanus’ in recognition of his victory. LEGACY OF THE 2ND PUNIC WAR – LASTING FEAR OF INVADERS FROM THE NORTH. BUT WAR WAS LARGELY WON BECAUSE OF THE RESOLUTION OF THE SENATE AND ITS RESILIENCE |
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civitas sine suffragio
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Civitas sine suffragio means “citizenship without the vote.” This was a status imposed by Rome upon some defeated communities outside of Latium in 338 BC following victory in the Latin War, which broke out in 341 BC (since the Italian “allies,” according to Livy, resented being treated as subjects). A form of partial citizenship, civitas sine suffragio meant that citizens in these communities, who retained their local citizenship, had all of the burdens and some of the privileges of Roman citizenship, but could neither vote nor hold elected office in Rome. The principal burden this status carried was the requirement to provide troops to the Roman army. Because this status was imposed upon many communities in Italy, both in and after 338 BC, this was the essential administrative arrangement that allowed the Roman state to draw on the combined manpower of the Italian peninsula, which was the key to the Roman conquest of Italy, the defeat of Carthage in the First and Second Punic Wars (264-241 BC, 218-202 BC), and the eventual conquest of the Mediterranean basin in the last two centuries BC.
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Gaius Marius
NOTE FOR GAIUS GRACCHUS - THE SENATE'S AUTHORITY HAD BEEN SHOWN TO BE HOLLOW, DEFENSIBLE IN THE LAST RESORT ONLY THROUGH FORCE. THE CONCILIUM PLEBIS HAD EMERGED AS AN ALTERNATIVE CENTER OF POWER WHICH COULD BE MANIPULATED BY AMBITIOUS TRIBUNES. THE EQUESTRIANS ALSO GAINED A NEW SENSE OF IDENTITY. ALLIES OF ROME, OFFERED BUT THEN REFUSED CITIZENSHIP, WERE PISSED OFF. |
(157 BC–January 13, 86 BC) was a Roman general and politician elected consul an unprecedented seven times during his career. He was also noted for his dramatic reforms of Roman armies, authorizing recruitment of landless citizens and reorganizing the structure of the legions into separate cohorts.
111 - Jugurthine war begins when Numidia, client state of Rome which neighboured African province, was seized by Jugurtha. In the struggle some Italian businessmen had been massacred and their supporters in the equestrian class demanded action from the senate. 107 - With the war going very slowly, the assembly presented their own candidate for consular elections, Gaius Marius, an equestrian. Marius defeat Jugurtha and secured command in Africa through a law passed by the concilium, which directly challenged the senate, which normally allocated provincial commands. He called for volunteers for his army instead of conscription, and was prepared to take men without property, which wasn't traditional. Defeated Jugurtha by 105. In 104 he secured a second consulship, and four successive consulships after that to defeat German tribes crossing into Roman territory. He secured land in Africa in 103 for his landless troops. Tried to get land for them in Italy, but was bitterly opposed and went into exile. Showed that a determined concilium could do a lot and the senate could do little to prevent it. Also showed that landless soldiers were completely dependent on their commander, and he could use them to pressure the state. |
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Social War
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Rome's constant back and forth on extending Roman citizenship to allied states was a catalyst for revolt.
91-91 - twelve major Italian peoples join to form the state of Italia. Imitated Rome's gov't and coins, but had a well trained army of 100,000. 90AD - Rome granted citizenship to all allies who stayed loyal and to those who agreed to lay down their arms. Opposition split, Rome crushed the rest, but Italian economy was disrupted, land ravaged, and thousands killed. Eventually, all people south of the Po were granted citizenship. |
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Lucius Cornelius Sulla
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Mithridates, king of Pontus, on the edge of the Black Sea. In 88BC he reached Asian province and called on Greeks to slaughter Italian citizens and their families.
Asian Greeks rallied to Mithridates. 88BC - Sulla was elected consul and granted command of armies to restore order in Asian province. HE quelled an uprising from a tribune attempting to give command over his troops to Marius, now 70. Once Sulla left Italy, however, Lucius Cornelius Cinna brought Marius from exile and captured Rome in 86. Declared Sulla an outlaw. Sulla, now in Asia, retook Athens and slaughtered Mithridates' supporters. Mithridates' popularity quickly collapsed, and he surrendered everything and retreated. 83BC - Lands back in Italy and begins a civil war and crushes Marius' supporters. Cinna had already died in 84. A list of equestrians and senators was drawn up, any of whom could be freely killed for reward. 82 - marches into Rome and declares himself dictator. Wanted to restore the power and prestige of the senate. Doubled it to 600 members. Extra 300 had to be equestrian . Equestrian class lost their right to sit on juries, which were to be reserved for senators. Restored rules about magistracies - no one could be praetor before 39 or consul before 42. Anyone who held the position of tribune could hold no other magistracy. Tribunes could no longer introduce legislation in the concilium without prior approval of the senate. Died in 78 after retiring from office. Reforms highly artificial. Quickly brought under pressure. |
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Pompey
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106 BC - 48 BC
Brash, arrogant, yet brilliant, Pompey sought to attain Alexander-like status Began his career putting down revolts in Italy and Spain following the reign of Sulla. 70 - Stood for consulship with Marcus Licinius Crassus, who was responsible for putting down the slave revolt led by Spartacus. 67 - Concilium gave Pompey an enormous force to cover the sea and all islands, and to run 80km inland, in response to pirate raids in the Med. Then he went after Mithridates and brought Armenia to the position of client kingdom to Rome. Annexed Syria in 64. Captured Jerusalem and made Judaea a client kingdom. Pompey created a stable eastern empire which now provided a vast income from taxes and tribute to Rome. He and Crassus undid Sulla's reforms, which gained him popular support, but not that of the senate. 74 - |
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Marcus Tullius Cicero
Lucius Sergius Catilina (Catiline) |
Consul in the year 63
Most gifted and versatile orator and man of letters Rome was ever to produce. 75 - Amidst corruption and bribery rife in government, he was the frist man to be elected as quaestor without the normal ten years of military service. 70 - asked to take on the prosecution of a notorious governor, Gaius Verres, who had ruthlessly plundered Sicily in the late 70s. Opening statement so devastating Verres forced to go into exile. 66 - elected praetor and consul for 63. Wiped out Cataline and his follower Etruscan rebels. |
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Julius Caesar
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13 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC
As a politician, Caesar made use of popularist tactics. During the late 60s and into the 50s BC, he formed political alliances that led to the so-called "First Triumvirate," an extra-legal arrangement with Marcus Licinius Crassus and Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus ("Pompey the Great") that was to dominate Roman politics for several years. Caesar's conquest of Gaul extended the Roman world to the North Sea, and in 55 BC he also conducted the first Roman invasion of Britain. These achievements granted him unmatched military power and threatened to eclipse Pompey's, while the death of Crassus contributed to increasing political tensions between the two triumviral survivors. Political realignments in Rome finally led to a stand-off between Caesar and Pompey, the latter having taken up the cause of the Senate. With the order that sent his legions across the Rubicon, Caesar began a civil war in 49 BC from which he emerged as the unrivaled leader of the Roman world. After assuming control of government, he began extensive reforms of Roman society and government. He centralised the bureaucracy of the Republic and was eventually proclaimed "dictator in perpetuity" (dictator perpetuo). A group of senators, led by Marcus Junius Brutus, assassinated the dictator on the Ides of March (15 March) 44 BC, hoping to restore the normal running of the Republic. However, the result was another Roman civil war, which ultimately led to the establishment of a permanent autocracy by Caesar's adopted heir, Gaius Octavianus. |
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Marcus Antonius
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January 14, 83 BC–August 1, 30 BC
supporter and the loyal friend of Gaius Julius Caesar as a military commander and administrator After Caesar's assassination, Antony formed an official political alliance with Octavian (Augustus) and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, known to historians today as the Second Triumvirate. The triumvirate broke up in 33 BC. Disagreement between Octavian and Antony erupted into civil war, the Final War of the Roman Republic, in 31 BC. Antony was defeated by Octavian at the naval Battle of Actium, and in a brief land battle at Alexandria. He and his lover Cleopatra committed suicide shortly thereafter. |
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Pyrrhus
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319-272 BC
ing of Epirus (306-302, 297-272 BC) and Macedon (288-284, 273-272 BC). He was one of the strongest opponents of early Rome. Some of his battles, though successful, cost him heavy losses, from which the term "Pyrrhic victory" was coined. |
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Massinissa
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c. 240 or 238 BC - c. 148 BC) was the first King of Numidia, an ancient North African nation of ancient Libyan tribes, which he united, and is most famous for his role as a Roman ally in the Battle of Zama.
Defected from Carthage to aid Rome half way through the 2nd Punic War. Led the cavalry that changed the tides of the battle of Zama for Rome. Was awarded kingship of Numidia |
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Cleopatra
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October 69 BC – August 12, 30 BC) was the last effective pharaoh of Egypt's Ptolemaic dynasty
As pharaoh, she consummated a liaison with Gaius Julius Caesar that solidified her grip on the throne After Caesar's assassination in 44 BC, she aligned with Mark Antony in opposition to Caesar's legal heir Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian After losing the Battle of Actium to Octavian's forces, Antony committed suicide. Cleopatra soon followed suit, according to tradition killing herself by means of an asp bite on August 12, 30 BC.[1] She was briefly outlived by Caesarion, who was declared pharaoh, but he was soon killed on Octavian's orders. Egypt became the Roman province of Aegyptus. Her death marks the end of the Ptolemaic Kingdom and Hellenistic period and the beginning of the Roman era in the eastern Mediterranean. |
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Zenobia
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(240 - after 274) was a 3rd century Syrian queen of the Palmyrene Empire, who led a famous revolt against the Roman Empire.
By 269, Zenobia had expanded the empire, conquering Egypt and expelling the Roman prefect, Tenagino Probus, who was beheaded after he led an attempt to recapture the territory. She ruled over Egypt until 274, when she was defeated and taken as a hostage to Rome by Emperor Aurelian. |
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Battle of Pydna
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Son of Philip of Macedon, Perseus, attempts to reestablish Macedon in Greece after the defeat of Antiochus, but is defeated at the battle of Pydna in 168.
It was in the settlement after Pydna that Roman power was first imposed effectively in Greece. Macedonia was split up into four republics. Other cities were plundered, power grew and, in 133, Pergamum was bequeathed to Rome and it became the province of Asia. |
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Battle of Actium
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he decisive confrontation of the Final War of the Roman Republic. It was fought between the forces of Octavian and the combined forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra. The battle took place on 2 September 31 BC, on the Ionian Sea near the Roman colony of Actium in Greece.
Octavian's victory enabled him to consolidate his power over Rome and its dominions. To that end, he adopted the title of Princeps ("first citizen") and as a result of the victory was awarded the title of Augustus by the Roman Senate |
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Battle of the Milvian Bridge
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ook place between the Roman Emperors Constantine I and Maxentius on 28 October 312. Constantine won the battle and started on the path that led him to end the Tetrarchy and become the sole ruler of the Roman Empire. Maxentius drowned in the Tiber during the battle.
According to chroniclers such as Eusebius of Caesarea and Lactantius, the battle marked the beginning of Constantine's conversion to Christianity. |
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Third Punic War
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149 BC to 146 BC
primarily consisted of a single main action, the Battle of Carthage, but resulted in the complete destruction of the city of Carthage, the annexation of all remaining Carthaginian territory by Rome, and the death or enslavement of the entire Carthaginian population. The Third Punic War ended Carthage's independent existence. |
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Treaty of the Ebro
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a treaty signed in 226 BC by Hasdrubal the Fair of Carthage and the Roman Republic, which fixed the river Ebro in Iberia as the boundary between the two powers. Under the terms of the treaty, Carthage would not expand north of the Ebro, as long as Rome likewise did not expand to the south of the river. In 219 BC, Rome, fearing the growing strength of Hannibal in Iberia, made an alliance with the city of Saguntum which lay a considerable distance south of the Ebro and claimed the city as its protectorate. Hannibal perceived this as a breach of the treaty and so laid siege to the city, which fell after eight months. Rome reacted to this apparent violation of the treaty and demanded justice from Carthage. The result was a declaration of war by Carthage on Rome. This became known as the Second Punic War, which lasted from 218 to 202 BC.
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Bar Kochba Revolt
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132–136
against the Roman Empire was the third major rebellion by the Jews of Iudaea Province (also spelled Judaea) and the last of the Jewish-Roman Wars. Simon bar Kokhba, the commander of the revolt, was acclaimed as a Messiah, a heroic figure who could restore Israel. The revolt established an independent state of Israel over parts of Judea for over two years, but a Roman army of 12 legions with auxiliaries finally crushed it. The Romans then barred Jews from Jerusalem, except to attend Tisha B'Av. Jewish Christians hailed Jesus as the Messiah and did not support Bar Kokhba. They were barred from Jerusalem along with the rest of the Jews. The war and its aftermath helped differentiate Christianity as a religion distinct from Judaism |
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imperium
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the concept applied to people and meant something like 'power status' or 'authority' or could be used with a geographical connotation and meant something like 'territory'. It is not to be mistaken with 'auctoritas'
could be used as a term indicating a characteristic of people, the wealth held in items, or the measure of formal power they had. it was also a more formal concept of legal authority. A man with imperium imperator had in principle absolute authority to apply the law within the scope of his magistracy or promagistracy, but could be vetoed or overruled by a magistrate or promagistrate having imperium maius (a higher degree of imperium) |
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latifundium
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great landed estates, specializing in agriculture destined for export: grain, olive oil, or wine.
the closest approximation to industrialized agriculture in Antiquity, and their economics depended upon slave labour. The basis of the latifundia in Italy and Sicily was the ager publicus that fell to the dispensation of the state through Rome's policy of war in the 1st century BC and the 1st century AD. |
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ager publicus
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name for the public land of the Roman Republic and Empire. It was usually acquired by expropriation from Rome's enemies.
In the earliest periods of Roman expansion in central Italy, the ager publicus was used for Roman and (after 338 BC) Latin colonies. Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus attempted to address some of these violations in 133 BC, by reimposing the limit of 500 iugera and distributing excess land to poor citizens. A similar move by his brother Gaius Sempronius Gracchus in 123 BC failed because of his death the following year. In 111 BC, a new law was passed which allowed individual smallholders to assume ownership of their part of the ager publicus. |
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tributum
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a decree of the Roman Senate during the late Roman Republic passed in times of emergency. It was first passed during the fall from power of Gaius Gracchus in 121 BC, and subsequently at several other points, including during Lepidus' march on Rome in 77 BC, the Conspiracy of Catiline in 63, and when Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon in 49. The Senatus consultum ultimum effectively replaced the disused dictatorship, by removing limitations on the magistrates' powers to preserve the State. After the rise of the Principate, there was little need for the Senate to issue the decree again.
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senatus consultum ultimum
TRIBUTUM IS A ROMAN TAX |
It was first passed during the fall from power of Gaius Gracchus in 121 BC, and subsequently at several other points, including during Lepidus' march on Rome in 77 BC, the Conspiracy of Catiline in 63, and when Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon in 49. The Senatus consultum ultimum effectively replaced the disused dictatorship, by removing limitations on the magistrates' powers to preserve the State. After the rise of the Principate, there was little need for the Senate to issue the decree again.
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