History 1377 First Test

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Ice Age: Bering Land Bridge

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Bering Land Bridge was the original surges into North America. 30,000 years ago the first surge came, inhabiting Alaska. The land bridge melts between first and second wave.

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Paleolithic, Paleo-Indians

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Before 6,000 years ago, Paleo Indians hunted animals and gathered food. They relied on big game hunting. That lead to population growth and strained resources. Skilled hunting and climate change resulted in extinction, marking the beginning of the archaic period (5,000 years ago).

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Archaic

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Indians adapted to the environmental changing, trying new strategies like hunting smaller animals. Developed complex process of growing their own food. It effected social life as well, creating greater sexual separation of labor. Gender roles need to be considered in context. Native cultural practices became more and more specific, because certain plants existed in specific regional environments. There is a development of regional cultures.

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Horticulture

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Overtime, horticulture developed from gathering, creating more division in gender roles. Social roles depended on conditions. Subsistence practice gives us a way to compare cultures. By 1500 B.C., natives learned how to cross maize with other grasses to create the corn that we now know. The developed a range of hybridized species. They learned to grow different kinds of crops, by cultivated the three sisters, corn, squash, and beans. Horticulture didn’t always remain women’s work. Indian men in the southwest were responsible for growing food. Social roles depended on the respective cultures. Eastern and central North America remained occupied with hunting. Indians on the west coast never developed horticulture. This all produced cultural complexities and cultural dynamism across native cultures all along the continent.

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Hybridization; maize

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Maize agriculture led to the growth of complex societies. Took thousands of years of cultivation to evolve into productive food source. Surplus of food supported a hierarchical society. Traded widely with people across mesoamerica, passed on cultural traits which reapeared later in other societies.

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Mercantile Capitalism

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Distribution of goods for profit. Economic system in Europe. Involved trading of exotic goods, which lead to profit, production, fueling industrial production. Spain was more focused on acquiring land, unlike France and Britain. Web of networks between colonies and mother land. Indians dictated rules of alliances, forcing europeans to modify their conditions. Irony is Indians are hardly spoken about in texas history, but they played a crucial role. Comanche Indians dominated North Texas in 18th and 19th centuries.

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Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca

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First europeans that set forth in NA were lost, in search for gold. Didn't find gold and suffered tax from INdians in florida. Shipwreck along with disease, starvation, and slavery take his crew. 4 survived and escaped their captors and followed rio grande. Learned customs of natives along the way and eventually became medicinemen. Wrote La Relación, a book about his travels and about the indian cultures he met. Induced stronger desire to conquest; conquest was a negotiation

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Esteban/Estavanico

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Shipwrecked with de Vaca and wrote an account on their voyage and endeavor.

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Don Juan de Onate

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1598, Spanish Viceroy sent a group of people under Onate to settle and in Americas. Established settlement among pueblo peoples who did not resist at first. Spanish took control of Pueblos and renamed it San Gabriel. Pueblos resisted and killed his nephew and 10 men. Onate sent a message with mass violence. Elite were assigned encomiendas, giving pueblos to elite. The mestizos (mixed race) possessed limited needs, compared to the pure spanish elite.

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Encomendero/ Encomiendo

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Elite Spanish were assigned encomiendas, giving pueblos to the elite. This spanish system imposes in Spain's America empire, requiring Indian communities to supply labor or pay tribute to a local colonial overlord. Spanish men were encomenderos and land they managed for spain was encomienda

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Limpieza de sangre (Purity of Blood)

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Spaniards born in spain were known as Peninsular. Native born indians were called Indio. Categorial names in the Castas system based on race

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Popé

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Became the leader of the new Indian controlled Santa Fe. Ordered destruction of everything spanish but was difficult for indians to do due to practicality in innovation. Was soon tested after the revolt and this reversal of incorporation. Spanish introduced horses and sheep, fruit trees, wheat, tools and crafts. This decade of independence affected Pueblo lifestyle.

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Reconquest, 1692

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Spaniards return to Pueblo territory two years after Popé was disposed

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Repartimiento

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Volunteer male indians assigned to public projects deemed to be for public good. Spanish and Pueblo grew mutually dependent and became allies against Apaches, Navajos, Utes, Comanche. But social/cultural worlds remained largely seperate

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King Philip's War, 1676; Metacom (Wompanoag)

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In England, population slowly grew, made English hungry for more land. Number of Indian tribes in NE. Metacom or King Philip, king of Indian tribe, has no alternative but to fight the English. Uprising spread and other bands of Indians joined. English sought after Indian allies for aid in catching Indians. Indian rebels ran out of food and ammunition and surrendered. English pushed the indians west and brought subjugation. Example of removal and extermination.

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Bacon's Rebellion, 1676

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Tobacco farmers constantly fighting Indians. 1675, wealthy backcountry planter, Nathaniel Bacon and neighbors launched an attack on indians in frontier region. British colonial government upset because attack not authorize. Virginia governor tried to stop attack which upset Bacon so anger shifted to Jamestown due to high taxation and no protection. Killed both colonial peoples and natives. Government needed support of elite farmers so they were in favor of armed expansion into native territory. Institutionalized anti-Indian censure

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Delaware

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Indians and English created a middle ground. Neither side could dominate land. Weak central authority. Indians also loosely organized and autonomous. Scandinavians took up indian farming and hunting practices. Sexual division of labor. Indians welcomed metal tools and animals, pigs and chickens. Log cabin originated from Scandinavian building practices which indians also adopted. Created own language based on Indian language combining swedish and English.

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Metís

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mixed race. Arranged marriages and some polygamy. Wives had easy access to divorce and full property rights. Unlike their Indian relatives, focused on trade and commerce and were catholic. Throughout New France, chose a path of combination, which resembled delaware colony than NE colonies.

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Chattel Slavery

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When a human being owns another human being as a piece of property and the practice is an accepted institution in society and written into law

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African Slave Trade

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Triangular trading system. Carried manufactured goods to Africa, then slaves from Africa to New World colonies. Then agricultural products moved from Americas to Britain. NY and other northern states profited from slave labor or trade. Brought the growth of ports, shipbuilding, and fueled industrial revolution in Europe.

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"Factories"

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Slave traders' holds. Traders remained at so called factories and purchased slaves from other Africans who brought them there

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Middle Passage

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Those who survived capture and the factories were moved onto slave ships and travelled through the "middle passage" through the Atlantic. Cramped into Vessels. Only small portion of slaves destined for NA. Many landed in Caribbean and Brazil. 1770, a fifth of the American population were slaves

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Olaudah Equiano

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Wrote a book, African man that was involved in the British movement for the Abolition of Slave Trade. Enslaved as a child, purchased his freedom.

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British American Slavery

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After arrival into British America, slaves entered one of 3 scenarios: tobacco based plantation slavery (largest and oldest on the Chesapeake), rice based plantation, and non-plantation slavery. By 1680 slaves dominated plantations not indentured servants. Half of white families in Virginia owned atleast one slave in 1770. Slavery tied to class structure. Chesapeake society became a complex hierarchy: top: large planters, small planters and landowning farmers, then convicts, tenant farmers, and slaves.

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French Louisiana Slavery

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African slaves, Indians, and settlers constantly interacted with each other, creating a less defined social structure: (frontier exchange economy: three groups were constantly trading with one another, usually with food. Indians grew beans, corn, and trade meat, African slaves grew and exchanged rice, European settlers provided poultry, veggies, and fruits. Merging of food cultures. Plantations eventually overpowered frontier exchange economy. How racism becomes codified in law, and how slavery became racialized. Racism is drawn from power and is institutionalized. Discrimination is plain old hate. How does racism become institutionalized? Receive independence through the practice of agriculture, which did not include Indians. Slave status had to be defined legally so they would not be confused with indentured servants. Slaves could not own livestock and guns, marry white women, testify against whites in court. Free blacks could own property with restrictions. Lost the right to vote.

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1662

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Children inherited the status of their mothers

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1691

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Law outlawed interracial marraige

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1723

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Free Blacks lost right to vote

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Stono Rebellion

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Passage of laws created racialization of slavery which provoked resistance and uprisings. In SC slaves resisted, killed 21 white people, burned houses and raided stores. Rebels dispersed though 44 were found and executed. Some slaves went to florida where Spanish abolished slavery. Taxes on slaves went up in SC to prevent more slave traders from entering the region. Rebellion constantly on planters' minds, more brutal treatment committed.

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African Retentions

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African born slaves outnumbered american born slaves. Slave holders would help retain that culture by referring to the slaves by their African origin. Characteristics attached to certain ethnicities which shaped slave sale. Ritual of Scarring of African individuals continued in NA. Scarring marked reputation but was viewed differently in NA. Several families continued to practice various African religions. Christianity wasn't taught because they were thought to be too savage. Religious practices themselves were thought to be savage.

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Igbo (from the Bight of Biafra)

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Accounted for 1/4 of slaves imported in colonial era. Described by whites as short, and sometimes seen as less desirable as workers. Retained cultural practice of: Title system, ritual scarring-mgburichi

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Levi Jordan Plantation (Brazoria, TX)

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Curings taken place. 4 different parts of cavern: 1) there was a ritual kit (iron kettle bases, white chalk, bird souls, an animals paw, ocean shells, nails, small dolls (Nkisi), nails (Nkisi), spike blades (Nkisi), medicine bottles, and a thermometer), (2) coins, (3) more iron kettles, (4) a hearth and ashes (base of a furnace). There was evidence of the Kongo Cosmogram, including etchings and the way the items were buried and laid down in the shape of the Cosmogram.

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Los Indios Barbaros

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Nomadic tribe that raided the area in South Texas. Exterminated the population

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Equestrians

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made within the Comache: relied on horses. Occupied NM but also extended eastward towards TX. Created a barrier to Spanish colonial expansion. Challenged European conquest. mid 18th century were overpowering the spanish. Went around killing and trading buffalo. Traded human captives to Spanish and French. Traded directly with Spanish. Cycle of hunting, raiding, and trading. French traded guns, which reinforced the cycle. Comanche empire powered by violence and expansion was an economic process. Their success relied on trade and markets outside their territory.

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Treaty of Paris, 1763

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France surrenders all of Canada and all claims east of mississippi river but kept land in Caribbean colonies. Gave all of Louisiana to spain to serve as a buffer between French and British.

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Republicanism

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The exercise of public virtue (self sacrifice for the public good) was attached to political ideology and how the government functions. This came to be known as republicanism. The key element was virtue. The truly just society provided the greatest possible liberty for all the individuals. They countered the structure of monarchies. They believed in the individual ownership of property and especially land, as a foundation of an independent and virtuous people.

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Sexual Morality

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According to sexual element of republicanism, if people were sexually moral, there would be order. Idea that men were inherently sexual beings therefore women were expected to use restraint. White woman are seen as sexual virtue and racial purity. Mixed race women were seen as racially impure and black women were the opposite of virtuous. As a result, white men raped black slaves, while still maintaining their sexual virtue as well as his pure family’s. By sleeping with black slaves, they maintained their wife’s sexual virtue.

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Nonimportation associations (women's participation)

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1776, British passed Townsend Revenue Act which placed duties on lead, glass, paint, and paper. As a result colonists organized non-importation associations. Boycotted British products appealed to people in small towns and rural areas. Women strongly supported boycott by organizing meetings to spin clothing and some women vowed to stop serving their husbands tea. Thus women played a political role. Brought rural communities into the struggle by integrating values of self-sufficiency and independence. Rural and Urban areas more closely unified now.

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Lord Dunmore

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The fact that small farmers, artisans, and other workers began to demand a greater voice in politics did not sit well for elites. Lord Dunmore offered freedom to any slave who fought on the British side (Lord Dunmore’s Proclamation).

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Thomas Paine, Common Sense

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Signaled change. Critiqued monarchy and pushed the idea of democratic elections and a written constitution that would protect peoples rights. Expanded his audience by writing clearly and directly, avoiding latin phrases. Sold over 150,000 copies

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Declaration of Independence

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Second Continental Congress signed the constitution (Thomas Jefferson). Listed grievances against the King of England, the taxes, and political tyranny against the colonists. Day before Second Continental Congress, they proclaimed that America was free from British rule. Heavy disagreement about the issue of slavery. Expressed notions of a nation ruled by the governed and also the rights issues.

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Land Ordinance of 1785

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Declared that land at the west would be structurally divided into townships. This conflicted with the Indian's use of distributing land. Still it was unsettled as to how these Western territories becomes a state.

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Northwest Ordinance, 1787

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Distributed new territories in the West, governed by a governor, and if they reached a certain population, they could be considered a state. Also prohibited slavery in North West territory.

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Indian Intercourse Act, 1790; sovereignty

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Made a legal distinction between the laws of the U.S. and the laws of Indian territories. An indian nation could live in reserved lands and did not have to abide laws of America. Laws sought to promote civilization. U.S. pledged to protect the natives and also sought to crate political institutions imposed on Indians.