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169 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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What does cyto mean and what part of speech is it?
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prefix for cell
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pre and unit
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what does cyte mean and what part of speech is it?
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suffix for cell
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suf and unit
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what does intracellular mean?
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within or inside boundaries of the cell
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in
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what does extracellular mean?
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outside boundaries of cell
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out
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what does intercellular mean?
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between 2 or more cells
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btwn
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What features are important to notice about cells in histology?
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shapes, colors, preservation
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PCS
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What is important about shape considerations in histology?
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we view tissues sections in two dimensional profile while they are actually three dimensional objects
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2D of 3D
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What are the 11 shapes of cells in histology?
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Ameboid, cuboidal, columnar, dendritic, fusiform, polyhedral, ovoid, pyramidal, spherical, squamous, stellate
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ACCDF-POPSSS
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What is ameboid?
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shaped like an ameba
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as described
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what is cuboidal?
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cube shaped
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2D 4 sides
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what is columnar?
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column-like shape that is taller than wide
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image is?
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what is dendritic?
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shape with 1-2 processes
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dendron = tree
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what is fusiform?
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thin, cigar shaped
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fusi = spindle
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what is ovoid?
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oval shaped
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description
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what is polyhedral?
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many sided shape
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poly = many
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what is spherical?
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sphere shaped
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descriptive
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what is squamous?
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large fried-edd shape, flattened
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squama = scale, squall = storm, which breaks eggs
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what is stellate?
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star like shaped
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stella = star
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what is pyramidal?
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pyramid like shaped
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walk like an egyptian.
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what color are tissues/cells?
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colorless except for pigments
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why stain?
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what must we do to see and describe cells and tissues?
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stain them
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add color
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where do stains come from?
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mostly the textile industry
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cloth
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how does staining help?
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impart contrast to structures of interest, enabling it to be described
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differentiate
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how can we discriminate specific cells/tissues?
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use of specific stains/colors, each with specific staining characteristics that enable discrimination of specific cells and tissues
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variety
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what is preservation?
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the 'fixing' of cells in living state
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freeze
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why preserve cells?
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to approximate their structural and chemical integrity
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chem shape
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what is a preserved cell?
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a snap shot at a moment in time
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photo
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how is preservation done?
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with chemicals that bind or cross-link to cellular constituents or cause them to precipitate and collapse on one another, holding them in place
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framework
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what does preservation do?
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with dyes, enable shape and compositional discrimination
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what do you see?
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how is a cell organized?
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interrelated, segregated compartments in 3 dimensions
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why prokaryotes?
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what questions should be asked about cell organization?
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what is going on in this part of the cell, how does it effect the overall function of the cell, should it be segregated from other cellular activities, how does it interrelate with other cellular functions?
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the 5 w and 1 h
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what provids segregation of compartments in a cell?
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biological membranes
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layers
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what are biological membranes?
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fluid structures that promote and prevent biological activities based on function
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regulation
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what are biological membranes composed of?
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lipid bilayer of phospholipids, glycolipids, cholesterol that is hydrophilis on outer surfaces and hydrophobic in inner leaflet
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2x pl +
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what is the Singer-Nicholson model?
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a model of biological membranes that includes globular proteins floating in lipid bilayer
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what does a bio mem look like?
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what properties to all biological membranes have?
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fluid (selective movement) and polar (different compositions at different surfaces)
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liquid at the poles
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what are the functions of all biological membranes?
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selectively permeable, compartmentalizes, energy conversion, structural integrity, carrier molecules, pores/channels, contains enzymes, contains receptor molecules, adhesion, recognition, transmission
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consider what a cell does: 11
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what is a plasma membrane?
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specialized biological membrane that seperates external/interanal environment.
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cell membrane
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can a plasma membrane be seen in light microscopy?
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No, but can be preserved by chemicals that fix lipid like osmium tetroxide and covered by specialized complex sugars called glycocalyx
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how?
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what is osmium tetroxide?
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a chemical that fixes lipid for preservation
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cell membranes
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what is glycocalyx?
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specialized complex sugars covering plasma membrane
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what we can see with light microscope
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what are the primary compartments of a cell?
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cytoplasm, nucleus
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the essentials
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What does cytoplasm contain?
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organelles, cytosol, and inclusions & cellular products
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3 things
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what do organelles of the cytoplasm do?
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energy utilization, packaging, secretion, ingestion, maintenance
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duties in cell
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what is cytosol?
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composed of water, structural/contractile proteins, enzymes, nucleotides, ions
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cell sap or jello
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what are inclusions and cellular products?
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metabolic debris, ingested materials, biosynthetic products
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everything we don't think about
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what is a nucleus?
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contains DNA, specialized RNA, related molecules in eukaryotic cells
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center of DNA
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What is another term for secondary compartments?
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cellular organelles
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co
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What is another term for cellular organelles?
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secondary compartments
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sc
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Where are cellular organelles found?
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intracytoplasmic
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in cytoplasm
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What are cellular organelles?
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ribosomes, rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), smooth endoplasmic reticulem (SER), peroxisomes, golgi complex, lysosomes
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what all does a cell need to do?
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What are ribosomes?
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ribonucleoprotein, 60% RNA & 40% protein
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name includes what it uses to produce
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What do ribosomes do?
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strucural adaptos essential for translating mRNA into proteins
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it uses what to make what
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What makes the ribosomes visible in microscopy and what do they look like?
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activity for both light and electron microscopy. In LM detectable as intense cytoplasmic basophilia or in EM as electron dense particle
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lights, camera, ....
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How forms or types of ribosomes are there?
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free or attached.
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membrane
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what are free ribosomes?
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not attached to membrane, involved in translation of mRNA and rRNA into proteins for the cell
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membrane connection?
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what are attached ribosomes?
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affixed (though transient) to the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and translates mRNA-rRNA message into proteins destined for export from cell
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to where?
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how do ribosomes know whether protein is for cell use or export?
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universal signal sequence on mRNA
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what is it reading?
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what is another name for rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
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granular endoplasmic reticulum
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GER
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what is rough endoplasmic reticulum?
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a cytoplasmic compartment wit ha continuous biologic membrane in form of cisternae (flattened bags) or lamellae (layered stacks), saccules (sacks) and tubules (little tubes)
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membrane
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what happens on rough endoplasmic reticulum?
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ribosomes, as RNA complexes wit hgrowing proteins, attach to specific sites on RER membrane and the protein grows in length by being incerted into the RER
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protein growth
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how do we see the RER in microscopy?
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detectable as intense, cytoplasmic basophilia (ie ribosomes), and varies in quantity based on cell's function or tate of activity
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ribosomes
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what is the function of the RER?
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to segregate the protein for export from cell from remainder of the cell
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export prep
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what is another name for smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)?
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agranular endoplasmic reticulum
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without granules
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what is smooth endoplasmic reticulum?
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a tubular membranous cisternae that branches and anastomoses (no flattened bags)
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not bags
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how does smooth endoplasmic reticulum look like in microscopy?
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eosinophilic appearance of cytoplasm (acidopihilic) without ribosomes
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will it show?
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what is the function of smoother endoplasmic reticulum (SER)?
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contain special enzymes (glucose 6 phosphatase & cytochromes), and in some cells, fatty acids are converted into fats, and syntehsis of steroid hormones and lipoproteins.
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synthesize and store some molecules
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what are peroxisomes?
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smaller than lysosomes, the contain neutral active enzymes (catalase)
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cat tank
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what is the funciton of peroxisomes?
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metabolism and detoxification, regulate oxygen tension, act as an oxygen sinkhole
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why does peroxide need to be acted on?
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what is the golgi complex/apparatus?
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flattened stacks of membranes in cisternae or saccules, with vesicles and vacuoles
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sacks with holes
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how do we see the golgi comples?
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does not stain in routine LM preperations as it is chromophobic, but appears as a 'negative' image (clear unstained region) near nucleus, but can be impregnated with silver or osmium for visualization.
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absence
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what is the golgi complex's structure?
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polarized with regions of entry and exit with stacks containing sequentially ordered enzymes that add/subtract structural sugars
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machine
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what are the functions of the golgi complex?
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modify newly translated proteins (+/- sugars to end groups), condense/concentrate synthesized products, membrane trafficking (renew old and target new to correct compartment with newly synthesize membranes
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line everything
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what are lysosomes?
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oval to spheroid structures that are basophilic (acidic compartment), that vary in size and shape but are bigger than peroxisomes and contain hydrolytic enzymes and proteases for degradation/metabolisms
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what does lyse mean?
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how do lysosomes maintains low pH?
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energy-dependent ion pumps in membrane
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needs energy
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what are the terms for changes in structure based on lysosomal activity?
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primary lysosome, secondary lysosome, residual body
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in order
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what is a primary lysosome?
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newly formed lysosome that has not yet fused with another organelle
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novice
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what is a secondary lysosome
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lysosome that has fused with at least one other organelle
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worked
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what is a residual body?
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remnants of indigestible material retained within a lysosome
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remnants
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what is the function of lysosomes?
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to recycle the center of the cell, protein metabolisms, destruction of ingested material
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recycle
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how are materials outside hte cell brought into the cell after surrounding with plasma membrane?
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endocytosis
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inside
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what is endocytosis?
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process by which maerials outside the cell are brought into the cell after being surrounded by plasma membrane
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consumption
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what are 2 types of endocytosis?
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phagocytosis and pinocytosis
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phag and pin
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what is phagocytosis?
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phagosome (phagocytic vesicle) formed by surrounding hte object/material to be internalized with an invaginated region of the plasma membrane, often using receptor-mediated endocystosis
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cell eating
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what is pinocytosis?
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pinosome formed like a phagosome except volume internalized is fluid phase using pinocytotic vesicle (smaller pinosome)
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cell drinking
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what processes are related to endocytosis?
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heterophagy, autophagy, autolysis
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aha!
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what is heterophagy?
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phagosome or pinosome fuses with primary lysosome to form a secondary lysosome or phagolysosome
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eating something other than self
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what is autophagy?
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worn-out, damaged organelles are segregated in membrane which fuses with lysosome to form autophagosome, where they are degraded
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eating self
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what is autolysis?
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apoptosis, senescence, old age, membrane can no longer segregate, break down, and spill contents into surrounding areas, causing destruction and death of cell
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self destruction, cell death
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what are mitochondria?
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tubular, spheroid, oval in shape (vary between cells, similar in like cells) with enormous amount of membrane (internal and external) with cristae (folds) in internal membrane
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energy bundles
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what do mitochondria do?
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convert energy in cell
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powerhouse
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How do we see mitochondria in microscopy?
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can be vitally (live) stained with Janus Green or in fixed preps with iron hematoxylin
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stain
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What does the mitochondrail matrix do?
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contain onw compliment of DNA/RNA and produces acetyl CoA
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how is this more like a prokaryote?
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What is the function of mitochondria?
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convert energy released into ATP through oxidization of carbs, lipids, or amino acids to CO2 and H2O facilitated by large amount of membrane which is a frame work for electron transport processes
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energy plant
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How do we see mitochondria in microscopy?
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can be vitally (live) stained with Janus Green or in fixed preps with iron hematoxylin
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stain
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What does the mitochondrail matrix do?
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contain onw compliment of DNA/RNA and produces acetyl CoA
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how is this more like a prokaryote?
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What is the function of mitochondria?
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convert energy released into ATP through oxidization of carbs, lipids, or amino acids to CO2 and H2O facilitated by large amount of membrane which is a frame work for electron transport processes
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energy plant
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What does cytosol contain?
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complex combination of structural and contractile proteins that exist in a dynamic state of equilibrium between a liquid (sol)and a semisolid (gel) that combine to form microscopic complexes in cytoplasm known as cytoskeleton and impart a soft rigidity capable of directional movement (all of which is specific for every cell)
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skeletons in the closet
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What structural elements are in the cytosol?
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microtubules, centrials, filaments
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f*#c #m
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what are microtubules?
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complex structural proteins that contribute to cytoskeleton and can rapidly assemble and disassemble to maintain organell positions or change cell shape
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scaffolding
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What do microtubules look like microscopicly?
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tiny tubes within cytoplasm that interact with organelles and other cytoskeletal components
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micro = tiny
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what do microtubules do?
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interact with specific energy tranducing molecules to generate motile forces (flagella & kinocilia) and anchor/move organelles
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move or hold
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what is the function of microtubules?
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morphogenesis, maintenance of cell shape/polarity, control/stabilize intracellular organellar traffic (endocytosis and exocytosis), motility of specific cellular structures
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police
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what are centrioles?
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centrosomes, cytocentrum, diplosome. structural proteins related to microtubules where each subunit is a fused triplet of microtubules
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tripoly tubule
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how many centrioles does a cell have?
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diploid = 2, multinucleated cells have many
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reproduction
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how do centrioles add structure?
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walls composed of microtubules arrange in 9 subunit arrays (x-sectional profile)
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"wall"
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what is the function of centrioles?
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center of microubule assembly/movement and important in mitosis, genesis of cilia, mitochondrai, new centrioles
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center of cell universe
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what are intermediate filaments?
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a structural protein in cytosol comprised of a wide variety of types of protein subunits that are unique/characteristic for specific cell types throught the body, contribute to cytoskeleton as stress proteins
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structural 'keratins'
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what are examples of intermediate filaments?
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desmin (muscle cells), vimentin (mesenchymal cells), keratin (epithelial cells), neurokeratin (certain nerve cells)
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everywhere
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what useful lab procedure can use intermediate filaments?
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immunostaining markers for specific cell types
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ID
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what is the function of intermediate filaments?
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structural orientation of other structural elements, anchoring of structure to cell surface
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guide and hold
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what are microfilaments?
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contractile proteins of smaller diamter (visible by EM) and composed of actin and myosin to generate motile forces (contractility)
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contractors
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what do microfilaments do?
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be structural links between other molecules
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bridge
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what is the function of microfilaments?
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cell locomotion, muscles cell contraction, cell surface ruffing, and infagination
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do the locomotion with me
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what are inclusions?
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glycogen, lipid droplets, pigment granules, crystals, debris
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everything else
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what is glycogen?
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polymer of glucose = major storage of carbs = energy), visualized by LM using PAS stain
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energy baby
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what are lipid droplets?
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fat (triglycerides) = storage form of fatty acids = energy, anhydrous droples of variable size, and leave round 'holes' in LM (unstained) or with special stains), NOT membrane bound, 3x energy of glycogen/wgt
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excess energy
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what are pigment granules?
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melanin, a brown pigment produced by specific cells of body, and lipofuscins, which reflect aging or metabolism/catabolism of cellular material (terminal lysosome?)
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age spots
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what are crystals?
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elaborate but uncommon, no limiting membrane, function unknown
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final frontier
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what is debris?
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indigestible, non convertible materal
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trash
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what are cellular products?
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secretory granules (packaged products from vesicles likeenzymes, acids, proteins, complex carbs) and vacuole vesicles (from secretion, endocytosis, membrane trafficking, etc)
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whatever comes out
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What does the nucleus have?
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nuclear envelope, chromatin material, nucleolus, nuclear sap
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4 parts
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What is the nuclear envelope?
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outer and inner nuclear membranes that are selectively permeable and interrupted with numerous nuclear pores that allow selective interchange of specific molecules between nucleus and cytosol
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membrane
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what molecules do nuclear pores allow exchange of?
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RNAs, signaling molecules, transcription factors
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3 things
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what is connected to the outer membrane of the nucleus?
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the rought endoplasmic reticulum is continuous with the outer membrane
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RER
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What is chromatin material?
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DNA complexed with histone and non-histone proteines during interphase state (routine functioning)
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the basics
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What is the interphace state?
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routine functioning of cell (rather than division)
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day in day out
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what forms of chromatin exist?
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heterochromatin and euchromatin
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het eu
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what is heterochromatin?
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highly condensed, transcriptionally inactive, basophilic (due to acidic DNA) with blue staining nuclear material in routine H & E sections
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inactive
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what is euchromatin?
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more diffuse, significantly less dense, transcriptionally active
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active
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what is the nucleolus?
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morphologically distinct nuclear region (small circular, basophilic structure) where transcription, processing, and packaging of ribosomal RNA takes place
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the center of the universe
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What is nuclear sap?
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all remaining, unstained clear regions of nucleus (water and other space-filling molecules) possibly proteoglycans and glycosaminoglycans
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all else
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what are 2 other terms for nuclear sap?
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nucleoplasm, karyoplasm
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nuke kary
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What are the types of cells?
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somatic cells (99.9% of body) and germ cells
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so-germ
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What are somatic cells?
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multiply by simple replicative mitosis, wherein chromosomes are duplicated, divide, and seperate to form identical DNA compliments in the two resulting dauhter cells
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self
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In somatic cells, what is karyokinesis?
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physical division and separation of the nucleus
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nuke
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in somatic cells, what is cytokinesis?
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physical division and separation of the cytoplasm
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cell
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what are germ cells?
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highly specialized, unique cells which insure the proper passage of the appropriate number of chromosomes from one generation of cells (and thus individual) to another
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sperm and egg
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In terms of chromosomes, mature germ cells are what?
|
haploid, with half the number of chromosomes of a somatic cell
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1/2
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What are the stages of the cell cycle?
|
T = Time of Generation
M = Mitosis G1 = growth via vegetative/routine maintenance S = synthesis G2 = growth via synthesis of histones & RNA |
Too many goats singing gloriously
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What is generation time?
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length of time between two successive divisions
|
T
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What is mitosis?
|
cellular division in stages of prophase, metaphase, ananphas and telophase
|
P-MAT
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What is vegetative stage?
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routine functional stage where cell does what it is programmed to do, may be very protracted, and may be arrested and referred to as G0 or R phase
|
G1
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What is the synthesis stae?
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When DNA is synthesized (duplicated)
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S copycat
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What is the post-duplication stage?
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synthesis of nuclear histones and RNA
|
G2 nuke RNA
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What are the stages of mitosis?
|
Prophase
Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Interphase |
IPMAT
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What occurs in prophase?
|
chromatin condenses, coils, supercoils to become a chromosome; seperate copies of cell's genome become visibly segregated into two sister chromatids that are attached to each other at the centromere (kinetochore); nuclear envelope begins to dissolve
|
3 parts: curl, duplicate, fade
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What is another word for centromere?
|
kinetochore
|
k?
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What occurs in metaphase?
|
nuclear envelope and nucleolus no longer visible, spindle forms, condensed chromosomes align along a midway plane between 2 pairs of centrioles; microtubules attach to kinetochore
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fade, line up, attach!
|
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What is a metaphase plate?
|
plane midway between two pairs of centrioles where chromosomes align
|
mitosis line
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What occurs during anaphase?
|
kinetochore splits and each chromatid (daughter chromosome) migrates to opposite poles and karyokinesis is complete
|
migration
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what is karyokinesis?
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anaphase, DNA seperation
|
migration
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what occurs during telophase?
|
chromatin uncoils and nuclear envelope reforms and nucleoli reform; cytoplams divides (cytokinesis) aided by actin filaments forming a contractile ring and a resulting cleavage furrow between seperating cells
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reformation, division
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what is cytokinesis
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telophase, cell seperation
|
reformation, division
|
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What is interphase?
|
duplication of cytoplasmic organelles
|
copy copy
|
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What is meiosis?
|
reduction division, ie diploid to haploid
|
reproductive cells
|
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What occurs in Meiosis I?
|
extended prophase; homologous chromosomes lie in apposition, potential "cross over" (recombination); each chromosome splits into 2 chromatids, so paired chromosomes = 4 chromatids (4N), metaphase plate seperates at anaphase, but kinetochore does not split at telophase
|
making more genetic material
|
|
|
What occurs in Meiosis II?
|
metaphase plate and kinetochore split and chromatids migrate to poles; haploid gametes formed
|
germ cells
|
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|
define diploid
|
refers to cells with chromosomes appearing in pairs
|
2
|
|
|
define haploid
|
cells with chromosomes appearing as 'singlets' (or 1/2 diploid number)
|
half
|
|
|
define 2N
|
refers to amount of DNA or presence of characteristic number of paired chromosomes in nucleus in G1 stage
|
diploid
|
|
|
define 4N
|
amount of DNA in nucleus after synthesis of DNA
|
double
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|
|
define N
|
half the amount of DNA of the G1 stage
|
half
|
|
|
define single stranded chromosome
|
single strand of DNA in G1 cell
|
uno
|
|
|
define double stranded chromosome
|
double strand of DNA following DNA synthesis (2 chromatids connected at centromere)
|
2
|
|
|
define homolgous pair
|
sister chromatids
|
double double
|
|
|
define polyploidy
|
refers to a cell with any multiple of the haploid number (large/duplicate nuclei are easily detectable forms)
|
many
|
|
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define aneuploidy
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cell with less than normal diploid number
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few
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define -somy
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suffix for indicating multiples of single chromosomes
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tri, bi, quad
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