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121 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Intracellular
Extracellular Intercellular |
Within the cell
Outside the cell Between 2 or more cells |
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ameboid
cuboidal columnar |
ameba shaped
cube shaped column shaped |
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Dendritic
Fusiform Ovoid |
1-2 processes
thin, cigar-like oval |
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Polyhedral
Spherical Squamous |
Many-sided
sphere shaped flattened, fried-egg shape |
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Stellate
Pyramid |
Star-shaped
Pyramid-like |
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Dyes are used to:
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Impart contrast to the structures of interest and describe a cell or tissue
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Key feature of Cells
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-Organized into segregated compartments by biological membranes
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Membranes
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-Fluid- certain components can be selectively moved about
-Polar- can have different membrane compositions at either surface -Bi-layer- Hydrophilic on outside and hydrophobic on inside |
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Functions of Biological membranes
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1) Selectively permeable
2) compartmentalize 3) Energy Conversion 4) Structural Integrity 5) Carrier Molecules 6) Pores/channels 7) Contains enzymes 8) Receptor Molecules 9) Adhesion 10) Cell to Cell recognition 11) Transmission of signals or impulses |
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Plasma Membrane
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-Membrane that seperates cell from outside environment
-Covered by complex sugars called glycocalyx -Not visible in the light microscope |
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Cytosol
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-Made of water, structural and contractile proteins, enzyes, etc
-In dynamic equilibrium between liquid and gel |
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Ribosomes
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-Ribonucleoprotein
-only visible by LM when actively translating mRNA to protein - Intense cytoplasmic basophilia (blue) - can be free working to make protein for cell use - can be attached to the endoplasmic reticulum making protein to be exported from the cell |
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Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
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-Continuous biological membrane with many flattened layers, layered stacks, saccules, and tubules
-ribosomes with growing protein are attached so RER looks highly basophillic as well -Function is to compartmentalize translated protein that will be exported |
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Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
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-Made of tubular membranous cisternae that branch and anastomose
- Acidiphilic/ easoniphilic (red) with no ribosomes - functions to convert fatty acids to to fats, synthesize steroid hormones and lipoproteins, and in detoxification |
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Peroxisomes
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-smaller than lysosomes
- function in metabolism and detoxification -oxygen sink of the cell |
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Golgi Complex
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-Flattened stacks of membranes with vesicles or vacuoles
-does not stain so appears as clear or unstained region near nucleus -Very polarized and has ordered enzymes within stacks to add or subtract structural sugars -Functions to modify protein, condense synthesized products, and in membrane trafficking by renewing old membrane and targeting new membrane |
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Lysosomes
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-small and oval or spheroid and normally basophilic
- Contains hydrolytic enzymes and proteases for degradation and functions as recycling center of cell -Uses energy dependent pumps to maintain a low PH -Primary is new, secondary has fused with at least one organelle, residual body has remnants of indigestible material |
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Endocytosis
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-Materials outside the cell are brought inside by being surrounded my plasma membrane
1)Phagocytosis- phagosome formed as membrane surrounds via invagination 2) Pinocytosis- pinosome formed the same as phagosome but internalizes liquid instead of solid |
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Heterophagy
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phagosome or pinosome fuses with lysosome
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Autophagy
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worn-out or damaged organelles segregated and fuse with lysosome to be degraded
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Apoptosis
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Autolysis- cell breaks down and spills contents and dies
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Mitochondrion
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-can be tubular, spheroid, or oval with a huge amount of membrane and folds (cristae)
-energy converters of the cell that turn energy from oxidation of carbs , AA's, or lipids into ATP via the ETC |
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Microtubules
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-Structural proteins that contribute to the cytoskelaton
- Can quickly assemble and disassemble to change shape of the cell and hold organelles in place |
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Centrioles
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- each subunit is a fused triplet of microtubule
-diploid cells have two with one at each pole that have important role in mitosis |
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Filaments
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1) Intermediate filaments- contribute to cytoskelaton, referred to as keratins, can anchor structures to cell surface, and can be used as immunostaining markers
2) Microfilaments- Contractile proteins that are smaller in diameter and are composed of actin and associated with myson to funtion in cell locomotion and muscle cell contraction |
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Inclusions
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1) Glycogen- polymer of glucose used for energy
2) Lipid Droplets- storage of fat for energy (3x) that look like unstained holes in cell and are not membrane bound 3) Pigement Granules- can me brown melanin or lipofuscins 4) Crystals 5) Indigestible materials |
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Cellular Products
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1) Secretory Granules- vesicles of packaged products
2) Vacuoles- result of secretion, endocytosis, or membrane trafficking |
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Nuclear Envelope
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- Formed by selectively permeable outer and inner nuclear membranes that are interrupted with nuclear pores
-The outer membrane is continuous with rough endoplasmic reticulum |
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Chromatin
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-DNA complexed with histones
1) Heterochromatin- high condensed, transcriptionally inactive, very basophilic 2) Euchromatin- more diffues, trnascriptionally active, much less basophilic |
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Nucleolus
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-Nuclear region that is small, circular, and basophilic where transcription, processing, and packaging of ribosomal RNA takes place
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Somatic Cells
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- multiply by replicative mitosis in which chromosomes are duplicated and divided to form two identical daughter cells
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Germ Cells
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- Insures the passage of an appropriate number of chromosomes from one generation of cells to another
-Mature Germ cells has half (haploid) the chromosomes as a somatic cell |
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Mitosis
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- Interphase
-Prophase -Metaphase -Anaphase -Telophase |
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Prophase
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chromatin condenses, supercoils, separate copies of cells genome visibly segregated into sister chromatids attached at centromere
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Metaphase
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-Nuclear envelope and nucleolus disappear
-Condensed chromosomes line up along middle of cell between two pairs of centrioles |
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Anaphase
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Each chromatid (daughter chromosome) moves towards opposite poles to complete karyokinesis
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Telophase
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-Chromatin uncoils and nuclear envelope reforms
- Cytoplasm divides and contractile ring is formed resulting in a cleavage furrow |
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Interphase
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Duplication of cytoplasmic organelles
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Four Basic Tissues
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1) Epithelium- lines external surfaces and internal tubes and forms glands. Derived from ectoderm (external) or endoderm (internal)
2) Connective Tissue- connects and binds other structures and are derived from mesoderm 3) Muscle- modified for contractility and derived from mesoderm 4) Nerve Tissue- adapted to conduct, receive, and transmit information and derived from ectoderm |
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Parenchyma
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Cells that make up an organ
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Stroma
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connective tissue matrix associated with epithelium
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Serosa
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specialized epithelia that line internal cavities witout external connection and secrete watery substance
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Mucosa
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Specialized epithelia that lines body tubes with an external connection and secrete thick viscous fluid
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Lumen
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space contained within a tube, cylinder, or sphere
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Apex/ Apical
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the lumenal border or surface
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Base/basal
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adjacent to the basement membrane and underlying connective tissue matrix
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lateral
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Sides of cell attached to adjacent cells
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Key Features of Epithelium
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-Line surface of organs and tissues
- Very little extracellular space with high cell density - Rest on basal lamina which attaches to underlying substrata -All epithelia are seperated from their surroundings by basement membrane -All epithelia are avascular and derive nourishment from blood vessels in underlying connective tissue |
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Function of Epithelium
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Protection, absorption, secretion, excretion, reception, and reproduction
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Classified by
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1) Number of layers
-Simple or stratified 2) Shape -squamous- flat, fried-egg -cuboidal -columnar |
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Simple Squamous Epithelium
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-thin cells with bulging nuclei
- mesothelium line inner surfaces of some body cavities and outer surfaces of internal organs making smooth surface between mobile viscera -endothelium line all blood vessels, heart, and lymphatics |
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Simple cuboidal Epithelium
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-line secretory and or absorptive surfaces and ducts
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Simple Columnar Epithelium
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line secretory and/or absorptive surfaces and ducts (stomach and intestine)
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Stratified Squamous Epithelium
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- Multiple layers of thin cells stacked on top of one another
- Basal cells are thicker than apical cells -Specialized to resist force and friction -Can be keratinized in which apical cells are hardened dead cells as in skin -Or non-keratinized where apical cells are dead but not hardened as in cornea |
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Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
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-Not actually stratified since all cells touch the basement membrane but not all touch the apical surface
-Can be ciliated or non-ciliated as in the trachea |
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Transitional Epithelium
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- Can accommodate stretching so cellss slide over each other and go from many layers to one layer as in the bladder
-May appear scalloped or like cobblestones |
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Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
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- Two layers of cuboidal cells
- Found in genital tract and some ducts |
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Stratified Columnar
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- appear mixed and only really found in developing organs and tissues
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Desmosome
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-Adhering spot or plaque between adjacent plasma membranes with structural filaments anchoring in place
-hemi-desmosome- attaches cell to basal lamina of epithelial cells |
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Zonular Adherens
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-Instead of a spot they circumscribe the whole cell
-Intermediate filaments act as anchors -had terminal web that is sometimes visible |
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Tight Junctions
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- Fused Membranes
- Outer layer of plasma membrane of adjacent cells is shared at periodic points -Incudes Zonular occludens near apical border to prevent solutes passing from lumenal to basilar sides between adjacent cells |
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Gap Junctions
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-minimal space between contiguous cells
-interrupted by regularly spaces arrays of channels between cells -not visible alone |
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Terminal bar
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-Dark staining spot at apical pole of adjacent epithelial cells that is visible by LM
-Made of desmosome, zonular adherens, and zonular occludens |
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Basilar Surfaces
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1) basal infoldings to increase surface area
2)Basal Lamina (basement membrane) is the connective tissue matrix adjacent to basilar surface of epithelium |
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Microvilli
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-On apical surface
- seen at high power, finger-like projections that form brush-like appearance and increase surface area -Have Glycocalyx- coating of glycoproteins and other complex sugars that can make microvilli more detectable |
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Stereocilia
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non-motile finger-like surface projections that are very long microvilli
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Cilia
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-Highly motile surface projections that are finger-like but are wider than microvilli
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Flagella
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-Similar to kinocilium but fewer in number and much longer
-Only found in cells that are motile and independent like sperm cells |
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Connective Tissue
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-Found in almost al tissue and organs
-Its relationship to other tissues defines organ architecture -Different types have different amounts of cells, fibers, and ground substance |
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Loose Irregular Connective Tissue
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-More space than fiber
-Differing cellularity -Randomly oriented collagenous, reticular, and elastic fibers -Fibroblast predominant -In life it is soft and pliable |
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Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
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-More fiber than space with typically fewer cells and wavy appearance
-Collagen and fibroblast predominant -Arranged tightly but irregularly -Firm and resistant to compression |
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Dense Regular Connective Tissue
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-heavy amounts of collagen arranged in parallel with very few cells
-very firm and resistant to directional force |
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Adipose Tissue
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-Fat cell is the predominant feature
-Found in association with loose connective tissue -Function to conserve hear, cushion, and as an energy stores |
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Function of Connective tissue
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shape, cushion, store energy, important in repair and regeneration
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Mesenchymal Cells
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-In embryonic mesoderm
-Undifferentiated, stellate shaped cell with cytoplasm undifferentiated from matrix -Synthesizes connective tissue and ground substance and are pluripotent |
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Fibroblasts
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-elongated or stellate cell that is euchromatic with prominent nucleus
-When stimulated can be very basophilic and rich in rough endoplasmic reticulum with golgi complex -Function in sythesis of connective tissue fibers and ground substance |
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Macrophage
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-Pleomorphic- lots of different kinds and appearances with a variety of functions
-Large cell with irregular or round shape -Cytoplasm is filled with lysosomes and sometimes debris or remnant of digestive activity -Can fuse to form giant cells |
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Plasma Cells
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-Small with very basophilic cytoplasm
-dark, round, eccentrically located nucleus ("Spokes on Wheel") -Area beside nucleus is often clear due to presence of golgi complex -Found in tissues with constant antigenic challenge like the GI and Respiratory tracts -Can have eosinophilic russel bodies of secretory products |
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Pericytes
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-found wrapped around vessels and capilaries
-surrounded by basement membrane adjacent to endothelial cells and can migrate away from and turn into other CT cells |
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Fat Cells
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1) White- large cell containing a single lipid droplet with the nucleus and cytoplasm flattened at the edge
2) Brown- smaller cell with multiple fat droplets and central round nuclus. Found in prenatal and hibernating animals |
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Mast Cells
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-Only seen with toluidine blue
-Large cell that is full of large granules and with round nucleus -Granules contain heparin and histamine, proteases and esterases -found in connective tissue near blood vessels and organ tubes |
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Leukocytes
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-lymphocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils can be found in CT
-Usually transient and reflective of inflammation |
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Reticular Cells
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-Large and stellate shaped with basophilic cytoplasm
-fixed fibroblasts that synthesize reticular fibers |
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Pigment Cells
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-Migrate to be close to basal cell layer of the epidermis, so some get left behind
-Produce melanin pigment |
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Collagen Fiber
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-Impart tensile stength
-Synthesized inside fibroblasts as procollagen before being secreted and modified -Types 1-4 are the most common |
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Type 1 Collagen
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-Most abundant and found in skin, bone, tendons, ligaments
-Stains orange or orang/pink -Synthesized by fibroblasts, osteoblast, and smooth muscle -Appears as wavy interlacing strands of varying thinckness |
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Type 2 Collagen
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-In cartilage, spinal column, and vitreous body of the eye
-Synthesized by chrondroblasts |
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Type 3 Collagen
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-Reticular fibers that must be stained for specifically
-Found in lymphoid organs, bone marrow, visceral organs, and skin -Synthesized by reticular cells, fibroblasts, and smooth muscle cells |
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Type 4 Collagen
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-Only in basement membranes
-Not fibrillar but adhesive -Synthesized by epithelial cells |
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Elastic Fibers
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- Imparts elasticity and recoil properties
-pale pink -Found in ligaments, elastic arteries, and lungs as a fiber or layered sheet -Synthesized by fibroblasts, smooth muscle cells, and chondroblasts |
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Ground Substance
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- Synthesized by fibroblasts and epithelial cells
-Appears washed out so not easily visualized -Act as glue between cells and fibers of CT and have large effect on cell behavior, injury, and repair |
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Cartilage and Bone
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-Unique due to their varying degrees of hardness so they can support and protect
-Tend to blend in with other tissues -Nearly all cartilage is avascular so nutrients must percolate or diffuse through matrix to reach cells |
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Cells of Cartilage
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-chondroblasts
-chondrocytes -chondroclasts -fibroblasts |
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Chondroblasts
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-capable of division and matrix productions
-have euchromatin |
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Chondrocytes
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-do not divide
-maintain matrix -heterochromatin |
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Chondroclasts
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-Specialized cells that break down matrix
-Come from blood monocytes |
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Fibroblasts
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-found along outer surfaces of cartilage
-can divide and produce matrix -Important in repair of injury |
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Matrix is made of
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1) fibers- type 2 collagen predominates and elastic fibers in special cases
2) ground substance- glycosaminoglycans linked with proteins to make proteoglycans -chondroitin sulfate -hyaluronic acids bind protein cores to form aggregates -responsible for matrix stability, volume definition, and compressive properties |
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Hyaline Cartilage
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-found in bone forming sites in fetus and young animals and at articular surfaces, respiratory airways, and supporting structures of the larynx and nose
-chondrocytes have artifactual clear lacunae around them and divide to form cell nests -have collagen and dense regular CT that is not visible and ground substance of heavily sulfated glycosaminoglycans -territorial- more basophilic around lacunae bc of acidic GAG's -interterritorial- less basophilic Perichondrium- separates and binds the cartilage to surrounding non-collagenous tissue |
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Elastic Cartilage
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- in external ear, external auditory, auditory tube, and epiglottis
-chondrocytes found in frequent isogenous groups -matrix is identical to hyaline cartilage except for presence of visible elastic fibers that are bright pink |
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Fibrocartilage
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-in invertebral discs, ligament/tendon attachment, joint menisci, pubic symphysis, and regions of transition between fibrous CT and hyaline cartilage
-never occurs alone -cells are arranged in orderly rows between collagen -visible because of lacunae that help differentiate from dense regular CT -Matrix organized in herringbone pattern with no perichondrium |
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Development and Growth of Cartilage
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1) chondroblasts divide and secrete matrix (interstitial growth)
2) Growth along edges of pre-existing outer boundary of cartilage (appositional growth) |
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Osteoblasts
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-bone forming cells capable of dividing
- cover most surfaces of bones and act as a unit -Secretion is biphasic at first organic matrix is secreted and then mineralization occurs |
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Osteocytes
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-Derived from osteoblasts and entirely embedded in matrix
-cellular processes that make contact with adjacent osteocytes and osteoblasts through microchannels within the matrix -stimulated by hormones to break down matrix |
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Osteoclasts
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-multinucleated giant cells derived from fusion of monocytes or macrophages
-Full of hydrolytic enzymes capable of breaking down organic matrix and acids to break down mineralized (inorganic) matrix -degradation takes place at cells brush border that is very segregated from surrounding environment by erosion lacunae |
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Matrix of bone
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*Bone is vascular
1) Fibers- Type 1 collagen in organic phase that gives tensile strength 2)Ground substance- inorganic with hydroxyapatite crystals that account for compressive stregth |
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Lamellar Bone
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-layered mature bone of adult skeleton with cells and matrix arrayed in concentric layers
1)compact 2)Spongy |
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Compact Bone
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1)osteon- the structural unit of bone in concentric layers around central canal that contains blood vessels, nerves, and lining called endosteum
- lamellae is the concentric layer -osteocytes are embedded at regular intervals with lacunae around them and canaliculi that connect adjacent lacunae and enable cell-cell contact -long canalsinterconnected by other canals at 90 degrees called perforating canals -interstitial lamellae- layered fragments of partially degraded osteons containing no central canals |
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Inner circumferential lamellae
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-layers of compact bone found on inner surface of bone
-all inner surfaces of compact bone are covered by a continuous layer of osteoblasts called endosteum |
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Outer circumferential lamellae
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-On outer surface with outer specialized layer called periosteum that is highly vascularized and innervated and has fibrous layer and osteogenic layer
Fibrous layer- dense regular CT with fibroblasts that acts as capsule and helps anchor periosteum to the bone Osteogenic layer- under fibrous layer that is highly cellular and filled with osteoblasts |
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Spongy Bone
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-More interosseus space than bony matrix
-Bony trabiculae- plates or spicules of bone that form complex lattice work to provide strength without adding weight (birds) |
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Woven Bone
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-immature bone formed in ossification center in the fetus and at sights of fracture repair
-in adults found in outer circumferecial lamellae -always replaced by lamellar bone |
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Bone formation
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Osteogenesis- bone is always formed by transformation from existing CT
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Intramembranous Ossification
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-replacement of loose CT by mesenchymal cells that differeniate into osteoblasts and make bony spicules
-Found in woven bone and appositional growth - |
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Endochondral ossification
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-preformed hyaline cartilage is replaced by appositional and interstitial growth
-Primary Center- perichondrium is penetrated by vessels and transformed into periosteum -calcification progresses, retards diffusion of nutrients, and cells die leading to periosteal bud -calcified cartilage is then replaced by bone -Secondary Center- everything that happens after primary and eventually fuses with the primary *cartilage does not become bone* |
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Histologic structures involved in mechanism for increasing bone length
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*at epiphyseal cartilage (growth plate)*
1) Zone of resting Cartilage- cells do not divide but anchor plate 2) Zone of Proliferation- stacks of wedge-shaped actively dividing cells 3) Zone of Maturation- columns of maturing chondrocytes increasing in size 4) Zone of Calcification- narrow region of large cells with thin intercellular matrix, very basophilic, prone to fractures 5) Zone of Ossification- ossified matrix eroded (resorbed) by perivascular cells |
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Mechanisms for increasing diameter
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-increases by simple appositional growth
- As dyaphyseal diameter increases so does the diameter of the marrow cavity |
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Articular cartilage
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-no periosteum but 3 layered zones defined by cell shape that gets more round the deeper you go
-deeper zones mark transition between non-mineralized cartilage and calcified cartilage delineated by tide line that stains darkly |
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Subchondral bone
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-underlies compact bone of the epiphysis
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Joint Capsule
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-synovial layer of specialized epithelium that secretes synovial fluid
-fibrous layer that adds stability to joint |
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Bone marrow
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-within medullary cavity
-red marrow that is hematopoietic -yellow bone marrow of adipose tissue |
