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74 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Historical Overview of Alexandria |
-338 BC Battle of Chaeroneia (Phillip II) -334-323 BC Alexander the Great conquers ancient world -323-275 BC Wars of Diadochi -306-222 BC 3 Ptolemies rulers -2nd AD Fall of Alexandria
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Alexander the Great |
-332-323 BC conquers the greater part of the ancient world -334 BC defeated the Persians, territory west of the Euphrates, next Egypt -332-331 BC founds Alexandra on Nile Delta -"Hellenistic Age" til 30 BC -Koiae Greek is the vernacular for trade, commerce, and legal issues -323 BC dies in Babylon |
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Wars of Diadochi |
323-275 BC Wars of sucessors Antigonids- Macedonia, Greece Seleucids- Western Asia Ptolemies- Egypt |
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Ptolemaois Soter |
-306-285 BC "founder" -close friend to Alexander -conquers Palestine, Syria, Cos -contact with Praxagoras = movement of Hippocratic texts to Alexandria (Alexandrian Renaissance) |
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Ptolemaois Philadelphus |
-285-247 BC "developer" -extends rule to Ethiopia, Arabia, and India -maintains established empire |
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Ptolemaois Evergetes |
-247-222 BC "maintainer" -expansion into Mesopotamia, Babylonia -Decline starts with son, then Cleopatra last Ptolemy (44 BC) whose death leads to Rome Empirical Rule |
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Library of Alexandria |
-(Majno and Whitehouse) -founded by Ptolemaois Soter -center for study of humanities, scholarly study of literary texts, philology, and literary criticism |
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Museum of Alexandria |
-(Strabos of 1st century AD description) -says its part of royal palace, and run by appointed priest -Place of scientific research: astronomy; anatomical, dissection/vivisection, physiological experiments, botanical, zoological gardens |
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Fall of Alexandria |
-2nd AD new cities rise (Antinoch, Pergamum, Rome, Athens, Rhodes, and Constantinople) -less funding until Emperor Hadria (117-38 AD) -last scientist Theon (4th century AD) and daughter Hypatia; murdered by Christians mark end of museum |
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Alexandria Medicine during era |
-no religious taboo, separation of body and soul at seat; private research facilities exist -VIVISECTION & DISSECTION -evidence from Celsus De Medicina, Prooemium
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Dogmatists |
-approach was philosophical with regard to body and disease -philosophical, anatomy, observation |
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Empriricists |
-opposed to dissection and philosophical explanation -importance is a "database" of intros experience and empirical knowledge -dissection and anatomy are not totally necessary and should be avoided |
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Diocles of Carystus |
-348-260 BC -first anatomy text -Anatomical dissection significance for their "sect" |
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Alexandrian Medical Discoveries |
-central nervous system (brain, spinal cord, nerves [motor and sensory] -differences between arteries and veins -Praxagoras of Cos > Herophilos -Praxagoras- arteries carry pneuma, veins carry blood -Herophilos- arteries and veins carry BOTH -cardiac valves discovered suggesting unidirectional flow |
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Alexandrian Spirits of Organ |
Arteries- Vital Spirit Veins- Nourishment Neura- psychic spirit |
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Cardiocentrist vs. Cerebrocentrist debate |
Cerebrocentrists: Alcameon > Diogenes of Apollonia > Herophilos Cardiocentrists: Aristotle > Erasistratos |
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Herophilos of Chalcedon |
-(Galen vol 22., Rufus of Ephesus [1st Century AD], Soranus [2nd Century AD]) -flourished in 3rd century -practicing reseracher, well regarded, use of drugs
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Herophilos Discoveries |
-detailed description of the brain -vascular system improved: arteries and veins = blood and pneuma -arterial vein, venous artery, acquainted with valves of heart -duodenum, liver, salivary glands, pancreas, prostate, genital organs, ovaries, lacteals -studied pulse with portable water clock |
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Herophilos 4 Forces |
-Nourishing liver -Thinking brain -Perceiving nerves -Heating heart |
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Erasistratos of Ceos |
-(Majno) -fl. 250 BC, possible pupil of Aristotle's student Theophrastos -mechanistic view: rejected humoral theory, disease the result of mechanical failure, great experimenter -cardiocentrist |
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Historical Overview of Roman Republic |
-2000-1000 BC: Indo-Europeans; Latins -800-400 BC: Etruscans (from Asia Minor) -753/853 BC: Founding of Rome -509 BC: Expulsion of Kings, Founding of Republic -264 BC: Rome dominates Italy -264-168 BC: Punic Wars -215-168 BC: Macedonia Wars -146 BC: Rome takes Greece -133-131 BC: Entire Mediterranean under Roman Rule -30 BC: Republic comes to end, becomes empire under Augustus/Octavius |
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Cato the Elder |
-(c. 234-149 BC) -wrote De Agri Cultura -Pater familias: father of Roman household -was respected and conservative Roman "new man" -Anti-Hellenistic: but understood and studied Greek (wrote and disseminated speeches) -wrote Origenes, a history of Rome til 145 BC |
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De Agri Cultura |
-handbook on agriculture, and running a household -treatments for snakebites, anus itch (hemorrhoids), disolation, etc -many ailments were botanically treated by medicinal wines -Cabbage: "ultimate cure for whatever ailed one"
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Medicina domestica |
-static and conservative because it's anti-Hellenistic and based on an agrarian society -folk medicine, and beliefs -is an ANACHRONISM (out of sync with contemporaryGreek medicine) -used herbs, magic, incantations and charms in a household as a form of primitive folk medicine |
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Pliny the Elder |
-23-79 AD -Historia Naturalis says there were no physicians in Rome -shows the continuity of medicina domestica |
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Greek Physicians in Rome |
-servi medici: Greek prisoners of war -peregrini medici: Free Greek physicians |
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Archagathus |
-moves from Pelopnnesus in 219 BC to Rome -first Greek peregrine medici, gains citizenship -vulnerarius (wound specialist) > butcher -Hippocratic techniques -"whole profession falls into disrespect" - (Pliny the Elder) |
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Greek Physicians Growth |
3rd century AD: Pliny the Elder wrote about Archagathus 2nd century BC: The Greek medical profession perseveres 1st Century BC: profession is flourishing according to Cicero |
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Cicero |
-106-43 BC -"the great orator" -Describes the Greek medics as a personal physician and friend, trust relationship
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Decree of Julius Caesar |
-46 BC -citizenship for those who practice medicine at Rome |
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Atomistic Theory |
-all phenomena are produced by the movement of atoms in void -atoms are solid, indestructible, invisible, and eternal bodies -everything is subject to change except the individual atoms themselves |
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Atomistic Theory: Humans |
-the human body is an amalgamation of moving atoms enclosing void space which creates both body and soul -death is the dissolution of that agglomeration and is brought about by vis (a force) the texture of the body-soul complex |
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Vis |
-a force (composed of atoms) that batters externally or penetrates and unravels the body-soul complex internally |
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Etiology of Epidemical Disease: Atomistic |
-seeds of disease fly, gather, and represent a force capable of causing death (seeds = atoms, force = vis) -the seeds corrupt the air by coming from distant locations or rising up from the soil -corrupted air settles on water and crops or is breathed in |
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Vis vs. Body |
-analogy of food drink: absorbed and distributed throughout the body to produce symptomology of disease analogy of breathing in injurious exhalations: similar for absorption and distribution |
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Atomism Individuals |
-Democritos and Leucippus (6th century BC) > Epicurus (4th-3rd century BC) > Lucretius (1st century BC) |
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Epicurus |
-(4th-3rd century BC) -leader of the "Garden" philosophical school -to achieve ataraxia (mental tranquility) you must withdraw yourself from political life and understanding the physical world through atomistic principle |
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Lucretius |
-(c. 99-55 BC) - Roman poet and philosopher -De rerum natura: 6 book didactic poem -expounds in Latin atomistic theory -dispels and discredits popular fears of Gods, death and the afterlife -learned Roman who spoke and studied Greek |
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Marcus Terentius Varro |
-116-27 BC - De re rustica -Roman encyclopedist, comes up with theory of disease ignored by ancient Graeco Roman contemporaries -"animalia quaedum minuta" -invisible insects or odors? -"Father of microorganisms" or "careless scholar" |
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Asclepiades of Bithynia |
-(d. by 92 BC) -rhetorican > medicus -1st century BC -mechanistic approach to explaining and resting disease -Tuto cito et jucunde (Safely, quickly, pleasantly) -Popular Treatment: No knife, cautery, used baths, rocking, exercise, massage, LOTS of wine, external fomentations, plasters, and scents) |
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Celsus |
-fl. c. 37 AD - Roman layman, wrote De Medicina Libri Octo -encyclopedist -encyclopedia had 6 parts: military, arts, rhetoric, philosophy, agriculture, jurisprudence, medicine -wrote in Latin -ranked with Galen and Hippocrates |
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De medicina libri octo |
-8 books on medicine were a part of this -history of medicine from Asklepios time -pathology, general therapy, specific therapy, pharmacological, surgery, and bone diseases -SOURCES: Hippocratic Corpus, Asclepiades of Bithynia, Alexandria texts -stresses the importance of anatomy with Hippocratic evaluation disease at its heart |
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Celsus contributions to Medicine |
-wounds vs. ulcers: blood comes from ulcers, pus from ulcers -4 signs of acute infection: "rubor et tumor cum calore et dolore" -redness, swelling with heat and pain -antiseptic wound dressing: "barbarum, lead oxide and ingredients that are toxic in large quantities" |
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Celsus and Surgery |
-3 Divisions of Medicine: Diet, Drugs, Surgery -surgery the most direct Chirurgus is a specialization of medici (filled with pity and compassion, but is unmoved) |
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Celsus Instruments |
-theca vulneraria (a wound kit) -probes, medicated sticks, starch, lead carbonate -medical portable chest -scalpels, uvula crusher, bone forceps, vaginal speculum, fibulae, collyrium |
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Celsus Procedures |
-control hemorrhage with pressure ligature (tying off of bleeding vessels), cautery, venesection, close wounds, with fibulae (surgical pins) -removal of cataract -skin graft with lesion -close up of hole ear lobe -amputation for tumors, trauma, deformities (Civil War period, ligature not mentioned but probably used) |
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Military Medicine |
-soldiers treated by billeting the wounded (duty of Roman citizen) -Decree of Manlius (480 BC) -wealthy patricians continue through the 1st Century BC, Celsus reports
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Valitudinaria |
-exist along borders of the Empire -created on frontier along the Rhine, Danube, and Scotland in 1st and 2nd centuries AD -forerunner for the hospital but ONLY for soldiers
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Simple Standard Plan |
-A single row of small rooms around a rectangular court -Novaesium, Germany collapse and fire (1962) carbonized herbs (henbane and centaury)
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Dioscorides |
-40-90 AD physician, pharmacologist, and botanist -De materia medica -Hippocratic aphorism #87:
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De materia medica |
-challenges not made until the 16th century, and late 19th century/20th century rescued by John Riddle -long textual continuity and transmission for 1600 years -supplanted by C. Linnaeus Species planatarum |
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Divisions of De Materia Medica |
-5 books: aromatics, animals, roots, wines, and minerals -organized according to properties of substance (dynameis) -warming, sleep-inducing, emetic, glueing, diuretical, cooling, drying -arrangement lost over time due to length -Galen rearranges it over time |
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Chapter Content of De Materia Medica |
-picture of the plant -name, habitats, prominent features, drug properties, drug usages, geographical locations or habits |
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Historical Significance: The Codex Anicia Juliana |
-oldest extant Greek medical text -dedicated to Anicia Juliana, daughter of the West Roman Emperor Flavius Anicius Olybrius -earliest frontispiece in western art -cermonial pose with god-threaded robe, holding a book (patrician), 8-pointed star with her name -3 symbols: Magnanimity-coins, Prudence- book, Gratitude- kneeling
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Uses of Codex Anicia Juliana |
-gift for practical use; value in illustrations alphabetically arranged selection of medical plants -important for history of pharmacology, botany, zoology, and ornithology; also for art |
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History of possession of Codex |
1204 Fall of Constantinople 1261 Byzantines recapture Constantinople 1406 repair by Johannes Chortasmenos with new index and rewrote the ancient Greek 1453 Turks capture Constantinope= Turkish, Arabic and Persian notes 16th century Jewish physician (Hebrew) > Sultan? Austrian Kaiser Maximillian II |
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Contents of codex |
-bird illustrations -De materia medica -Prose of poems about Theriaka -Paraphrases of Poems that describe poisons -Uses of birds
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Galen |
(129-216 AD) -Klaudios Galenos -Kuhn edition served as textbook for practicing physicians into the 19th century -works were dominant authority in medicine, didn't change until 16th century Renaissance with Andreas Vesalius
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Galen's Life |
(129-216 AD) - born at Pergamum, father a wealthy architect and promoted eduction; mother was vicious -arrogant, pompous, egotistical, great Hellenist
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Galen Historical Overview |
-144/145 AD studies at Pergamum, medicine at Smyrna, Corinth and Alexandria in 148/149 -157 AD returns to Pergamum, surgeon for Gladiators -162 AD goes to Rome for recognition -166 AD Plague in Rome > flees to Pergamum (precedent) -168 AD military camp of Marcus Aurelius 216 AD Death, fame for medicine and philosophy |
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Galen's Writing and Research |
-3 categories of writing: (Medical, philosophical, and philological) -Dissection: emphasis on anatomy and experiments early on (dissects and vivisects animals) -described surgical procedures -Experimentation and anatomical observation leads to philosophical discussion: theories of humors blood/pneuma |
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Discoveries from vivisection
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-blood in arteries -urine from kidneys -severed spinal cord for paralysis -voice from interior larynx -brain is responsible for mental faculties (confirms cerebrocentrists) |
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Galenic humoral theory |
-adds personality characteristics "chloric sanguine, phlegmatic, and melancholic" associated times of day, colors -relationship between blood and pneuma -blood and pnuema coexist in vessels and mix in different capacities |
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Galenic 3 Mixes of Blood and Pnuema |
-Natural Spirit: produced in the liver, travels through veins [NUTRITION AND METABOLISM] -Vital Spirit: produced in the left heart, travels through the arteries [MOTION, ACTIVITY, DISTRIBUTION OF HEAT] -Animal Spirit: Produced in the brain through rete miracle, travels through nerves [REASON, SENSATION] |
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Mithridatium |
-panacea to fight against poisons -King Mithridates VI of Pontus -contains 41 ingredients, one of which is opium |
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Andromachus |
-1st century AD: Theriacs used for any potential complaint, taken daily -Called "Theriaca Andromachi" or "Galene" (tranquility) -more than 55 ingredients -Galen wrote Theriake book to discuss all ingredients, degrees, and how it is prepared -central in therapeutics until 19th century -1724 Act in England: regulate manufacture of drugs |
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Transmission of Graeco-Roman medicine to Renaissance |
Ancient Greek/Roman texts > Constantinople > Syrica> Arabic> Latin> printed and original greek sought > practical use |
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Greek physicians complete works at Constantinople |
-4th-7th century AD -Orbasius (4th century) -Aetius of Amid (6th century) -Paulus of Aegina (7th century)
abrigement for practical use |
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Nestorian flee Constantinople |
-5th century AD -Go to Jundi Shapur in Persia -texts translated into Syriac
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Arab empire established in Meditterean |
-Translation to Arabic after 7th century -10th/11th century Arabic scholars and physicians translate and provide commentary -Hunain (9th century) -Rhazes (10th century) -Avicenna (11th century)
extensive commentaries in Arabic about etiology and therapeutics |
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Arabic retranslated into Latin in Europe |
11th-12th century Constantine the African (1087) Salerno, Italy Gerard of Cremona (1187) Toledo, Spain
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Demand for Actual Greek Texts |
16th century, Renaissance 1525/1526 Galen and Hippocrates appear in print Gradual criticism of Galenic texts (Andreas Vesalius in 1543) |
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Hippocratic texts referred to as Galenism |
Harvey and Malpighi 17th century |
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Re-Editing of Texts for Practical Use |
19th century Littré edition of Hippocratic Corpus (1839-61) Kuhn edition of Galenic Corpus |
