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150 Cards in this Set
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In 1848 Czech and German nationalists combined to demand Bohemian independence from the Austrian empire.
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Czech nationalists wanted the Austrian empire reconstructed along federal lines that would give the Czechs equal standing with the Germans |
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After 1911 the Suffragettes of the WSPU escalated their confrontation with the British government with demonstration, destruction of property, and hunger strikes that forced the House of Commons to concede the right to vote for women over 30.
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In return for the continued political support of the junker class, the German imperial state adopted a non-interventionist stance with respect to the economy in 1879.
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It appeased the Junkers with protective tariffs |
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By 1200 Jewish landowning became impossible because large land ownership meant power over Christian peasants, power to appoint the local priest, and payment of Church tithes.
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In his opposition to the "reformism" of Bernstein, Kautsky warned that the gains of the European working class would never be secure as long as they were excluded from political power
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Social imperialism was a conservative political strategy designed to transform class conflict into national solidarity
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After 1879, the Third Republic relied on the support of rural voters organized by provincial political machines, and on big business which exercised financial influence over the Chamber of Deputies at the national level.
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No one party had sufficient weight in Parliament. It survived through much discontent and political swaying |
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Democratic professors like Max Weber and Friedrich Nauman argued that Germany must reject imperialism and power politics in order to concentrate on improving domestic social conditions
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They supported it |
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By 1914 conservative elites in Britain, France, and Germany had used imperialism, military spending, and "law and order" to crush socialist and progressive coalitions advocating social reforms
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Socialism is gaining strength, and conservatives are polarized |
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William II attempted to reduce tension between England and Germany by abandoning Germany's battleship building program in 1895
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It continued its shipbuilding despite fears of other nations |
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During the 16th century English, French, and Spanish Jews were forced into overcrowded ghettos where they were pauperized, harshly discriminated against, and cut off from European culture
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They were expelled to E and central Europe |
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The 1848 Revolution in Vienna failed because of a class-based conflict between radical artisans and students demanding jobs for the unemployed, middle-class liberals opposed to state interference with market forces, and rural peasants unwilling to be taxed for government programs that did not benefit them
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By 1900 Catholic antisemitism and secular racism had made the Austrian Germans the most antisemitc people in Western Europe
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Antisemitism did not really exist. Conflicts were in nationalities |
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After 1873 right-wing nationalist movements of the lower middle class emerged across continental Europe opposing "unfair competition" from big business, "modern" immortality in the cities, and socialist parties and unions representing the industrial working class.
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The Berlin Congress of 1884 provoked the "scramble for Africa" when it declared that European powers must actually occupy territory in order to claim it
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Prince Metternich of Austria proposed the Carlsbad decrees to promote the principles of liberal rights and national self-determination within the newly created German confederation
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He wanted to suppress the rights and nationalism because he feared it would break up the empire |
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Enlightenment support for the liberation of the Jews was coupled with the patronizing expectation that they would drop their religious "superstitions" and assimilate into European society
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The Prussian Constitution of 1849 gave the Landtag absolute veto power over the King's control of the army and foreign policy
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It did not have a lot of power |
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The British path to WWI was determined by the fact that England felt more threatened by Germany than by any of its other imperialist rivals
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German shopkeepers and their clerks were strong supporters of antisemitic movements because they suffered from the competition of new department stores and new techniques of mass retailing pioneered by Jews
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Bismarck was a strong advocate of parliamentary sovereignty as a safeguard against Prussian absolutism and the Junker aristocracy
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He was an advocate of Prussian absolutism and the Junker aristocracy against parliamentary sovereignty |
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In the late 19th century many politicians and industrialists believed that the only way their nations could insure their economic necessities in the future was to acquire colonies in the present
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Adolf Stoecker's antisemitic Christian social Workers Party attracted large numbers of proletarian voters at the expense of the Social Democrats
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He never gained mass support; and he secured a seat in Parliament after a coalition with conservatives |
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With the passage of the "People's Budget" and the Parliament Bill, conflicts between labor and the Liberal Party of Lloyd George virtually disappeared
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Antisemitism was especially bitter among German peasants living in underdeveloped areas where Jewish middlemen enjoyed a near monopoly of credit, the cattle and grain trade, and often real estate business
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Sammlungspolitik was a political strategy designed to rally the "collective interests of the nation" behind the industrialists and Junkers
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The new middle class of white-collar workers in industrial European society was politcally progressive on issues of equal opportunity, yet politcally conservative on issues of economic equality and the rights of workers to unionize and strike
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The economic success and cultural assimilation of 19th century german Jews provided the rational kernel within the mystical shell of anitsemitic fantasies of Jewish power
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In central Europe the bourgeois revolutionaries of 1848 espoused the ideologies of liberalism and nationalism, but were fearful of unleashing the power of the popular classes
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As a result of Bismarck's Kulturkampf the Catholic Center Party had lost the allegiance of most Catholic voters by 1890
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Persecution strengthened Catholic loyalties and it gained support |
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For "Social Imperialists" like Joseph Chamberlain imperialism meant economic prosperity, national unity, and full employment
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Prior to 1848 nationalism was an ideology associated with a political alliance of bourgeois and aristocratic elites based upon increasing state power and popular support for the existing regime
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It was radical and the commoners were against the paresitic elites |
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Fearing a revival of French power after the Franco-Prussian War, Bismarck opposed the colonial ambitions of the Third Republic
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France lost the Franco-Prussian War |
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During the depression of 1873-1895 the German landed aristocracy reacted to the fall of grain prices by specializing in meat and dairy production
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They demanded protective tariffs |
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Jewish emancipation depended upon the French Revolution; unfortunately they became symbols of revolutionary liberalism, and so enemies of liberalism tended to become enemies of jews as well
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During the 19th century and early 20th centuries German and Austrian Jews were used as scapegoats for economic problems and lightning rods for the anticapitalist, antimodern resentments of struggling peasants, artisans, and small businessmen
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Faced with increasing competition from industrial rivals after 1870, Great Britain rejected economic modernization in favor of increased reliance on colonial markets for its traditional exports and its huge "invisible" earnings from international financial operations
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The introduction of universal suffrage in Austria in 1907 resulted in the destruction of the Liberal Party and the division of the Reichsrat among bitterly antagonistic Socialist, German-Catholic nationalist, and Slavic and Czech parties
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The "world policy" of William II was based upon the deliberate and calculated use of foreign policy as an instrument for achieving domestic political ends
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The internal motor of the "new imperialism: of the late 19th century was low wages that limited domestic purchasing power and created the need for foreign markets for domestic production
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The new "white collar" class of managers, engineers, salespeople, and state employees emerging in Europe in later 19th century tended to define liberty in terms meritocracy rather than equality
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During the 1848 Revolution in Vienna, a "Committee of Citizens" was created to oppose artisan demands for government-funded work programs for the unemployed
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It created public works to give temporary work to artisans |
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The Navy League, the Agrarian League, and the Pan-German League were right wing organizations designed to influence German politics by extra-parliamentary means
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The "new imperialism" of the late 19th century was the result of global military and strategic conflicts not domestic problems of overproduction and class conflict
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It was a result of industrialization and class conflict intensified |
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The "Rye and Iron Alliance" of 1879 resulted from the demands of agricultural and factory workers for real parliamentary sovereignty within the German Empire
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Bismarck's protectionism united Junkers and big business with protective tariffs |
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In the Foundations of the 19th Century (1899), H.S. Chamberlain claimed that Jews were a product of "unnatural crossbreeding in the ancient Middle East and a present danger to the "purity" of German blood
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By the end of the 19th century the working classes of Europe were politically and economically integrated into the liberal capitalist consensus
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They were socialist with unions |
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Ironically, the Great Depression that began in 1873 meant rising real wages for the British working class enabling modest purchases of consumer goods and an increase in the consumption of meat
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In Bismarck's German Empire the "friends of the Reich" included Catholics, socialists, and liberal democrats
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These were the "enemies of the Reich" Friends included the National Liberal and Conservative parties |
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The Taff Vale decision of 1901 absolved striking British workers from all liability for lost revenue and other damages incurred by their employers
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The workers were liable |
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After firing Bismarck, William II appointed Caprivi as Chancellor in order to rebuild the "rye and iron" alliance between the Junkers and big capital by means of massive military spending and protective tariffs
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William II wants to be a popular king, so Caprivi concedes to engage in reform policies, reduces military budget |
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During the High Middle Ages, European Jews were forced out of "respectable" economic activities by Christian guilds and into moneylending by kings anxious to extort money from Christian subjects by demanding protection money from their Jewish creditors
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The ideal of so-called "new conservatives" such as Napoleon III, Cavour, and Bismarck was to control the forces of change not suppress them
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The defeat of the revolutions of 1848 demonstrated the continued vitality of the Austrian Empire and its capacity to "keep up" with the other great powers of Europe
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It showed that the diverse makeup of ethnicities within the Austrian Empire could not unite themselves against the government. The rulers took advantage of this and encouraged one group over another to further fragment them |
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By 1914 conservative elites in Germany believed that war was the solution to its domestic political conflicts and to the shifting European balance of power where Russian power was growing as Austrian power was declining
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The 1848 revolutions in central Europe showed that nationalism and liberalism were neither necessary nor natural allies
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Although Bismarck's pro-capitalist legal reforms encouraged speculative and often fraudulent ventures, the importance of Jews in the stock market gave racists a chance to accuse them of collective responsibility for the economic crash of 1873
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By the later 19th century Great Britain was using the economic surplus it extorted from the underdeveloped world, especially from India, to help finance its increasing deficits with the advanced economies of the United States and Europe
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From 1653 the Hohenzollern dynasty successfully pursued a strategy of "revolution from above" by allying with the Junkers in an authoritarian state dominated by military considerations
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After being defeated by Napoleon in 1806, Prussia initiated a capitalist "revolution from above" that eliminated serfdom and guild monopolies and established a constitutional parliamentary government
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It did not yet create a parliamentary government |
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European antisemitism was an "inferior servant" racism combining Christian myths of Jewish sexuality, economic myths of Jewish laziness, and biological myths of Jewish stupidity in order to exploit Jewish labor without conceding any substantive political equality
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Evil rivalry racism |
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In the last decades of the 19th century the predominance of the landed wealth in England declined as the gentry began selling land and transferring their wealth into international financial investments controlled by London bankers
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Most German sales clerks, low-level bureaucrats, and other white-collar semi-professionals were receptive to Social Democratic claims that they were not victims of Jews but proletarians being exploited by industrial capitalism
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They believed they were victims of Jews |
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For Czechs, Slovaks, Croats, Serbs, Ukrainians, and Romanians, the assertion of their existence as nations in the first half of the 19th century meant inventing common languages, experiences, and traditions
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They remained ethnically separate |
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Because 19th century France industrialized relatively slowly and maintained a relatively large proportion of smaller artisan-based workshops, anarchism and syndicalism provided strong competition for Marxism within the socialist movement
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The Frankfurt Parliament supported artisan and peasant rebels in order to obtain popular support for the overthrow of the "old regime" of princes and nobles throughout Germany
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It alienated the countryside and forced the aristocracy |
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The peace settlement of the Congress of Vienna was based on the "universal principles" of liberalism, capitalism, and nationalism
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It ignored liberal and nationalist aspirations; focused on keeping equal balance of power |
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Because social Darwinism, eugenics, and scientific racism were thoroughly discredited in the schools and universities, antisemitism never really took hold among the educated classes of either Germany or Austria
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The educated distorted reason and science |
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After 1850 socialist parties advocating government control of industry and worker control of government and workplace grew rapidly throughout Europe
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The Zollverein was promoted by Metternich to facilitate the development of Austrian industry and to provide new markets for Bohemian grain producers
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It focused on the development of German states, excluding Austria, under Prussian leadership |
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By the late 19th century Britain faced economic rivals who no longer needed its industrial machinery or manufactured goods and who were successfully competing with England for foreign markets and colonies
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By successfully initiating pro-labor reforms and refusing to endorse government repression of striking workers, Alexandre Millerand proved that a Socialist could work within a bourgeois government without compromising working-class interests
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He failed initiating reforms and would later become a Radical Republican |
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Bismarck's unification of Germany represented the triumph of nationalism and conservatism over liberalism
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The creation of a stable capitalist democracy involves legitimizing in the minds of those who do not own the means of production the political and economic power of those who do
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After national unification the industrial prosperity of northern Italy was quickly extended to the relatively impoverished agrarian southern region
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Prosperity remained in Northern Italy |
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Disraeli's "Tory democracy" involved a class alliance of gentry landowners, yeoman farmers, and urban and rural workers around imperialism and paternalist protection from free liberals
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The term "revolution from above" involves economic development, political reforms, and social changes, which increase state power without threatening the hegemony of the ruling classes
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The external motor of the "new imperialism: of the late-19th century was the emergence of industrial rivals to England's global economy that triggered a preemptive scramble for colonies and military actions to create and protect them
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During the Second Empire, Napoleon III promoted industrialization with railroad building, investment banks, and large-scale urban development project, but in the process, alienated his mass base among the farmers and the lower middle class in the countryside
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He made sure the lines would go to the countryside and make sure of a a profit to the RR |
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The relationship between racism and economic development may take the form of "evil rival" or "inferior servant" stereotypes
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During the 1840s secret revolutionary organizations known as the "Carbonari" drew their membership from both southern Italian peasants and northern Italian artisans
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Drew membership from middle class and army |
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So-called "revisionist" Marxists urged European socialist parties to use the existing political and economic system to build a socialist society without revolutionary violence
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The "Hungry Forties" in Germany were the result of poor harvests and potato blight and a crisis of handicraft industry due to growing competition from factory produced goods
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In contrast to the Hohenzollerns, the Hapsburgs had to contend with a multitude of ethnic, political, and economics antagonisms that greatly complicated the task of "revolution from above"
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In 18th century France Ashkenazi Jews from in Central Europe considered themselves superior to Shepardic Jews from Spain who were believed to have been degraded by a "ghetto mentality"
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During the period of so-called "New Imperialism" Great Britain attempted to increase control over its existing Empire while expanding its imperial domain over Africa which was seen as the "future India"
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After 1848, national power became an ideology of economic and political expansion that united old landed aristocracies and new capitalist elites
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To protect its grain producers from declining world prices during the Great Depression, the British government reinstated the Corn Laws that it had abolished in 1846
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The tariffs were gradually lowered beginning in 1846 and completely abolished in 1849 |
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Captains of industry were defenders of imperialism and predicted dire consequences of their nation failed to get its share of the world markets
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The liberal failure during the 1848 Revolutions in Central Europe was largely the result of a fundamental conflict between the socio-economic interest of the middle classes and the aristocrats
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The failure was a result of the middle class deserting the working class once it began to engage in revoltions |
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The Congress of Vienna awarded Prussia the industrializing region of the Rhineland as compensation for the loss of Prussian Poland to Russia
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Luther believed that the Jews would accept his "true" Christianity, but even if they did not he opposed their persecution by Protestants
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If they did not accept his true Christianity, they opposed God and should be persecuted |
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The "Party of Order" was a coalition of Legitimists, Orleanists, and Bonapartists organized to combat "red" Republicans in 1849
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By refusing to abolish forced labor and other feudal obligations the Hapsburgs insured the hostility of peasants throughout the Empire during the 1848 Revolutions
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They abolished serfdom |
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By actively participating in the policy of "state mercantilism" the bourgeois elites of 18th century Prussia were able to obtain political equality with the landed aristocracy
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The state would defer to the aristocracy; middle class remained small |
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The Paris Commune signified the possibility of a political compromise between conservative elitists and democratic socialists around French nationalism
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They fought with each other-divided over peace with Germany |
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In the elections of 1906, Lloyd George's "lib-Lab" alliance opposed the social imperialism of conservative "Unionists" in the name of social reforms to be paid for by an income tax on the wealthy
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The "national workshops" created during 1848 Revolution in France were viewed by liberal republicans as a temporary relief measure but by the working class as their guaranteed "right to work"
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From 1870 to 1877 the newly created Third Republic was in the hands of conservative elitists whose major disagreement was over which dynasty to install as monarch
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Under Chancellor Bulow the German Right combated the popularity of the SPD by reviving the "rye and iron alliance" and relying on imperialism, anti-socialism, and antisemitism as electoral strategies
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Conservative elites in the late-19th and early-20th century England viewed Ireland as a conquered colony to administered peacefully if possible, but forcibly if necessary
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During the 1840s Charles Albert of Piedmont promoted both industrialization and democracy throughout Northern Italy
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Promoted a liberal constitution-only the wealthy can vote |
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The Federal Council (Bundesrat) was a constitutional fig leaf for Prussian dominance over the other states within German Empire
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During the 1870s 12 year-old boys from the upper class schools in England were 5 inches taller on average than working class boys from industrial schools
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Christian missionaries of the late 19th century not only saved the eternal souls of heathens; they also inculcated the moral superiority and righteousness of European imperialists
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Joseph II of Austria successfully implemented a "revolution from above" in the 1780s by abolishing serfdom, imposing legal equality, creating a free market within the empire, taking control of the schools from the Church, and reducing the rents paid by peasants to aristocratic landowners
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As mayor of Vienna, Karl Lueger kept the city safe for capitalism by labeling reforms benefiting the lower middle class as victories over international, Jewish finance rather than victories over Austrian capitalists or capitalism in general
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The Agrarian League was a pressure group created by the Junker landowners to mobilize the support of small and middling farmers against the free-trade policies of Chancellor Caprivi
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The defeat of the 1848 revolutions preserved the predominance of ethnic Germans throughout the Austrian Empre
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The "three-class" voting system gave the richest tax payers of Prussia a secure majority of deputies within the Landtag
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As a result of strong liberal opposition to his military budget, King William I of Prussia was forced to accept the final authority of the Landtag over government spending and the appointment of King's chief ministers
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He hired Bismarck who overrode Parliament |
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"Integral" nationalism refers to the domination of a subordinate group by requiring its members to accept the language and culture of the dominant group
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When Western European Kings were able to rely on non-Jewish merchants and bankers for loans and credit they hastened to accept their "responsibility" as Christian rulers, seized the property of the Jews, and expelled them from their domains
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As a result of Germany's rapid industrialization and the growth of the SPD and trade unions many self-employed artisans, small farmers, and traditional white-collar workers felt threatened and moved politically to the Right
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When the Austrian socialists became a unified party in 1888 their defense of working-class solidarity constituted a threat to both German and Slavic nationalist parties
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Between 1890 and 1914 England was bitterly divided over women's suffrage and Irish home rule but unified in supporting working-class unions and their right to strike
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They were divided over this Craft unions sabotaged general unions |
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Bismarck had no intention of limiting the power of capitalists over labor, but he understood that social insurance and a measure of state welfare were useful "carrots: to complement the "stick" of repressive anti-socialist laws
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The "June Days" involved a middle-class uprising against the paternalist program of "state socialism" implemented Louis-Philippe
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A working class uprising, looked down upon by the rest of the classes, calling out for an end to poverty and redistribution of property |
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As a "free trade" imperialist Gladstone refused to engage in imperialist conflicts in Africa and supported "home rule" for both Ireland and India
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Believed in home rule for Ireland, but not for India |
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The Boulanger crisis revealed the emergence of a right-wing populist threat to the support given to the Third Republic by most peasants and members of the lower middle class
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Between 1850 and 1914 most European workers lived in bleak tenements without running water and worked as much as 70 to 75 hours per week in unregulated trades
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In Germany, "social Darwinism" was most successful when it stressed competitive individualism as a "scientific" refutation of socialism and Christianity
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Most successful when it stressed idea of race |
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Mazzini believed an Italian Resorgimento could be achieved by combing radical democracy with nationalist solidarity
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The Pan-German League was founded to support German imperialism and eastward expansion
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Otto Boeckel idealized the German peasant as the backbone of the nation and lamented the intrusion of market forces and urban ways into the countryside because they endangered the healthy racial instincts of the Volk
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Bismarck supported universal manhood suffrage in the imperial parliament (Reichstag) because he believed the vast numbers of reliable conservative voters in the countryside would allow him to use democracy to control democracy
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In contrast to the global imperialist rivalries of England, France and Germany, the backward empires of Turkey, Austria-Hungary, and Russia were involved in constant regional conflicts over nationalist independence movements in the Balkans
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The central contradiction of the political structure of the German Empire was the fact that real power remained in the hands of Emperor and his imperial bureaucracy not in the hands of the democratically elected Reichstag
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Although Cavour wanted the Austrians out of northern Italy, he had no interest in disturbing Papal rule central Italy or that of the Bourbon monarchy in the south
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He persuaded Napoleon III of France to invade the Papal state By Piedmont |
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By the later Middle Ages belief in Satan was commonplace and the Jew's refusal to accept Christ led to a belief that they were agents of Satan himself
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By the 1890's the Austrian Emperor opposed democracy because it would destroy the fragile unity of Austria, wipe out the elitist and "unionist" Liberal and Conservative parties, and threaten the Jews who were influential political and economic supporters
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The Third Reform Bill extended the vote to the "respectable" working men in the English countryside, that is those paying 10/year in rent or owning property annually taxed at 10
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Although opposed to political liberalism, the landed aristocrats of central Europe were by 1848 no longer opposed capitalist relations of production
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By eliminating serfdom during its second "revolution from above" Prussia created a large class of yeoman farmers and left the Junker estates without and agrarian labor force
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It created a small class of yeomen farmers. Most remained employed by Junkers |
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By casting social problems in terms of guilt, sin, and religion, Adolf Stoecker enabled his followers to personalize their enemies and avoid analyzing the actual workings of society or supporting the Left they feared
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The Hungarian Revolution of 1848 united Hungarians, Romanians, and Slavs against the imperialism of German Austrians
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The Romanians and Slavs were encouraged to revolt by the German Austrians |
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Although real wages rose dramatically after 1850, by 1900 40% of British workers were officially living in poverty (earning less that 18 shillings/week) while the "labor aristocracy" (earning at least 2/week) amounted to no more than 15% of working class
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The Freycinet Plan of 1878 forced French railroad companies to build new lines to service less populated regions or face nationalization by the Radical-controlled Republic
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Espousing "equal opportunity" and the ideal of the independent small businessman and farmer, Léon Gambetta was able to win the french countryside over to liberal democracy
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Although the Second International officially endorsed reformism in 1904, European socialist parties continued to reject cooperation with progressive democratic parties in England, France, and Germany
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It couldn't agree on whether to endorse reformism or remain traditional |
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The victory of the "Drewyfusards" in the 1890s insured cooperative political relations between socialists and liberal democrats until the aftermath of WWI
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Between 1890 and 1914 the SPD and the leaders of the German trade union movement became more revolutionary in their ideology and more confrontational in their actions
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Because they refused to support the declarations of war by their governments in 1914, the parliamentary representatives of the SPD, SFIO, and Labour parties were removed from office and placed under "protective" custody for the duration of the war
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They supported the war |
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After the stunning victory of the SPD in the elections of 1912, Chancellor Behmann was forced to grant the progressive majority in the Reichstag a greater role in the governing of Germany
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In the decades preceding WWI Great Britain began to reduce its capital investment in other countries in order to dramatically increase capital formation at home
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It increased its capital investment in its colonies |
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By ignoring the economic discontents of peasants and artisans, while liberating Jews from all civic disabilities, the Frankfurt Parliament discredited liberal reforms as "Jewish" incompatible with a Christian economic and moral order
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After their sweeping victory in 1879 the Radical Republican Party of Gambetta proceeded to initiate sweeping reforms that benefited the urban working class to be paid for by a steeply progressive income tax
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The defeat of the Jaurés in the elections of 1913 was not only a defeat for progressive social reforms and the income tax, it was also a resounding endorsement of French imperialism and militarization
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T
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Although it was able to reach an agreement with France over their differences in northern Africa, Great Britain refused to negotiate with Russia over Afghanistan or the Straits
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F
It did negotiate with Russia, but almost went to war with France |
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By the 1890s Austrian Germans and Austrian Czechs were both attacking the Jews; to the Czechs the Jews were Germans, to the Germans the Jews were simply Jews
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F
They were all just considered Jews |
