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69 Cards in this Set
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"republic of letters"- 1660’s:
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industry of scientific publishing occurs, the notion that during the Scientific Revolution, the world was boundaryless due to the circulation of ideas via the printing press, and the new European desire for expansion. These publications were published in the vernacular language (available to a widespread audience), and highlighted the distinction between science and religion.
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1660- Royal Society for Improving Natural Knowledge (London)
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1660- Royal Society for Improving Natural Knowledge (London)- under Charles of France. the payment of scientists to conduct investigations. these institutions started to replace universities. These served to expand sciences to the laypeople. Membership in these societies confirmed prestige on the doing of science (included experts). These societies were common for aristocrats or gentlemen. Science was starting to become professional rather than something that was seen as crazy. Newton was the president.
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1666- Royal Academy of Sciences (Paris)-
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under Louis
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1687- Newton, Principia-
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published in Latin. Newton’s book that uses math to lay out laws of motion that unity earth and the oslar system. He provided new answers for old-age questions, and combined the new science with the Christian world-view
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Jesuits-
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the super-Catholic counterpart to the Reformation that headed the counter-Reformation. The society of Jesus was founded by Igantius of Loyola to combat heresy (wrong-minded Christianity) and to combat paganism (non-Christians). Missionaries, after learning the natives’ languages, would travel to foreign countries to “Christianize” them, with the belief that they should blend/adapt Christianity to these various cultures. The Jesuits were also known for their scholarship and the schools they set up. Through the proliferation of their writings, people in Europe were able to get a better sense of what non-European people were like. The Jesuits expanded the sense that there is a knowable world outside of Europe.
-new sense that there is a certain level of similarity between the people’s of the world. -the universe is made up of the same matter at heart -Europeans had to come to terms with the fact that there were other religions than Christianity and with difference in general -Europe is no longer the center of the world/universe |
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Atlantic system plantations-
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Atlantic trade=Western Europe, Africa, Americans. European buys slaves from west Africa sold in Americas for raw materials. materials brought back to europe to make goods then sold in africa/world). Plantations=large pieces of land where staple crops could be produced, farmed by imported slave labor, (in general) owned by white colonial settlers from Western Europe.
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Parts of Atlantic System Plantations
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1. Population growth-
2. Agricultural change-. 3. Rise of cottage industry- 4. “consumer revolution” and the birth of the middle class (bourgeoisie) |
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1. Population growth-
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1. Population growth-more people of mixed race in the Americas, more slaves than whites, more men than women. Introduction of Pirates who preyed on everyone.
Importance: increasingly makes people of the new world different from that of Europe. |
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2. Agricultural change-.
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increase in productivity, feeding more ppl changes of production, from India.
Importance: allows for middle class because not every family is concerned with where their next meal will come from. |
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3. Rise of cottage industry-
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home production, new forms of industrialism, taking the raw materials from the America’s. Part of the trade triangle, which connects the world through economics.
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4. “consumer revolution” and the birth of the middle class (bourgeoisie)
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-globalization of trade, passion for tea/sugar/coffee/cocoa. Individuals start buying non-essential items and begin congregating in public areas to do so, thus the emergence of the middle class.
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J.S. Bach-wrote Coffee Cantata (1734).
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Famous composer, often used his audience life sake to write many of his works. Wrote both religious and secular music (court/dance/opera).
Importance: endorses the coffee fad, rising middle class and public sphere. reminds society that people far apart are becoming more and more connected. |
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Leipzig-
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Place where Bach performed. Has to do with the new middle class, authority based on wealth not social status.
Importance: changing of the middle class. |
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Coffee Cantata (1734)-
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Cantata (wind and string instruments). Written by J.S. Bach, for the weekly cantata meeting at the coffee house. About a woman so deeply in love with coffee that her old fashioned father threatens to disown her if she will not give up her addiction, she agrees to do social things so long as her suitor allows her to drink coffee whenever she pleases. “Grandmothers and mothers love their coffee , so who can blame the daughters?”
Importance: shows the rising women collaborating and discussing in groups-women are slowly entering the public sphere. Also shows the expanding role of coffee in social life. |
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1734- Voltaire, Philosophical Letters on the English Nation-
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Idealized England and in turn criticized France. Discussed England's religious freedom, flexible commerce, intellectual freedom and government. Does not say that the French government should be overthrown (as majority of people are still seen to be stupid), but to reshape the qualities of the upper class.
Importance: begins the discussion of French faults in governing (by indirectly complementing England). By reshaping the elite it would eventually trickle down and reshape all of French society. |
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1751-65, Diderot,ed, Encyclopedia-
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arranged knowledge non-hierarchically but alphabetically. attempted to explain different subjects to change peoples thinkings.
Importance: displayed knowledge in a fashion that did not rank the importance of things, but rather simply displayed the new information. part of the enlightenment. |
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1792-M Wollstonecraft, Vindication of the Rights of Women
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all of the readings here show the growing middle class and enlightnemetn thinking. basically questioning social norms and
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Philosophe-
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french term, new type of intellectual. not a formal philosopher because they live within society people, not isolated. New professions as professors, writers. Interested in social issues (not theoretical). Important: draws out new social issues (ex. sexual orientation, politics) and brings them into the public sphere. has a lot of impact on the middle class and enlightenment thinking.
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Salon-
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type of living room. wealthy women would host gatherings combining the intellectual and social side of life. Mixed people from different backgrounds (fancy aristocrats and less fancy philosophes.
Important: brought people together, spread of ideas. enabled women to be part of politics while still being within the home. |
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-Cesare Beccaria:
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author of “On Crimes and Punishments;” said that the state’s task is to protect society and its people, as well as dignity of all persons, argued that the natural rights of those accused of crimes should be protected too; ideas of innocent until proven guilty and all people standing equal were important to Beccaria; difference between guilt and sin (secular courts determine crimes against the state; sin was a matter of religion); Beccaria rejected the death penalty, opposed executions, and opposed torture -- following this, torture was banned; these reforms allowed enlightenment rulers to think of themselves as progressive and to build their states up on utilitarian principles; Beccaria felt that the system of morality had previously been undermined by unjust torture practices, he also felt that different levels of crime should be handled differently and religious crimes shouldn’t be determined by the state; also said the torture system was flawed because the most hardened criminals would never crack under pressure/torture
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-Adam Smith:
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author of the “Wealth of Nations;” pushed for laissez-faire economic arrangements; said that states don’t need to regulate, human nature and the “invisible hand” would take over; said that individual self-interest was the motivating factor; anti-mercantilist vs. pro-capitalist
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-Laissez-Faire:
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also known as economic liberalism, this was a push for less government intervention (moving away from mercantilism); under this system, land became a measure of wealth, markets began establishing prices for goods, and there was a move to have greater supply and lower prices; Adam Smith expanded on this idea in “Wealth of Nations” - if individuals began to pursue self-interest, forces of supply and demand would meet; free trade market in turn would produce greater happiness; this was important for rethinking social structure and changing its economic contours
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-Enlightened Absolutism:
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in the heart of the enlightenment, absolute rulers developed enlightenment ideas; most famous examples include Frederick the Great (Prussia), Catherine the Great (Russia), and Joseph II (Austria); absolute enlightenment rulers were interested in reforming the legal system, education, religion, and economic freedoms
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-Frederick the Great, Prussia:
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(1740-1786) an enlightened absolutist who wanted to be forever remembered as a french ruler; he built elaborate courts and brought the elites in, believed he was a servant of the people; wanted to promote the general good - by freeing serfs, abolishing capital punishment, getting rid of censorships, instituting exams (meritocracy and state affairs), trying to stimulate the economy, improving agricultural practices, and thinking of himself as a deist (toleration of protestants and catholics, but NOT to jews); he wanted to make Prussia just and practical, and believed that enlightenment ideas would make the state more efficient; he refused to ban serfdom, but was interested in the balance of human rights with traditional rights (strong state, healthy population, accordance with policy)
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1707 England and Scotland write to form GB:
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England at this time was thriving internationally and domestically; to increase territory, they joined with Scotland to create GB; this strategic commercial position allowed England to continue to flourish comfortably and securely
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1714 English crown to the House of Hanover: GEORGE I (1714-27)
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this event reaffirmed parliament and protestantism of the people; at this time, England was wealthy, stable, but hardly democratic; it still had a strong international presence
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1739 War of Jenkins Ear:
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in a continual warfare era, there were constant zones of fighting, and war began to emerge in colonial contexts (Europe has colonies in much of the world); this war was between GB and Spain, and it suggested that piracy, trade routes, colonialism, and resources could become the main instigators of war
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1756 Seven Years War/Great War for EMPIRE:
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before the 1750’s, the main struggles in Europe were between France and Austria; France was worried about British competition, and Austria was worried about Prussia; France and Austria (classic enemies) formed an alliance in 1756 to fight the Seven Years War (GB and Prussia formed an alliance); on the European continent, the war mainly took place in Austria and Prussia, but it soon spread to the colonies and the sea, becoming the Great War for Empire, and this included the British and the French more so (French and Indian War -- American context); the British are the real victors in the colonies, the French lose globally; Britain becomes the greatest colonial power and there is an obvious shift in the nature of warfare, it takes on a different quality; formal business to improve position of sovereign states, and acquisition of prestige, territory, and power become important; also war strengthens states, at the same time as other states become vulnerable
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-State Building:
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absolute rulers worked to increase power over policy within the state and control resources; this was a foreign policy measure -- building up the state to compete with and influence other nations; Frederick the Great implemented this with Prussia
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-State System:
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this was ideal in terms of states, because it was believed that there was no greater authority than the state; the state system believed in extending states to get bigger and stronger
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-Balance of Power:
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this is the idea of states working together to maintain balance and keep to the status quo
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-George I (1714-1727):
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first monarch of the house of hanover; during his reign, Britain transitioned from a monarchy into a modern cabinet government
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George II (1727-1760):
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son of George I, he exercised little control over British domestic policy
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-George III (1760-1820):
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ascended to the throne in 1760 after the death of George II, his grandfather; under his reign, British political life changed and opposition and unrest arose within parliament (tensions between Whigs and Tories), among ordinary people in cities (radicals and popular politics), and among colonial subjects in North America (insurgents); **these things are better described within the other terms in this section
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-Whigs v. Tories:
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Whigs and Tories become two distinct political parties/factions; Whigs supported protestantism (Locke-esque) and Tories supported hereditary rights and the Anglican church (backed by the urban peoples); in practice, the Whigs dominated - they were associated with parliament; defended liberty, property, and rule of law; and protected the British constitution. George III disliked Whig domination and he installed a minister without parliament’s approval; the Whigs were disgusted and a division of the house of commons along ideological lines takes place -- this is the beginning of political parties; the Whigs also appealed to public opinion outside parliament and enlisted the support of like-minded people
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-John Wilkes:
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most famous of the radical dissenters who called for more involvement of ordinary peoples; the radical dissenters wanted freedom of the press, electoral parliament reform, and an end to the Whig oligarchy. Wilkes was a protestant dissenter and the son of a printer, he was a champion for reform and in 1763 published “Journal #43” where he attacked the Treaty of Paris (unfavorable to Britain). He was arrested for insult. Wilkes became a symbol for liberty, freedom, and suffrage. He appealed to merchants and artisans in the cities, and represented the emergence of political culture
FRANCE |
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-Louis XV (1715-1774):
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felt bound to customary principles, wanted to hold onto absolutism while at the same time embracing enlightenment ideas, not very popular
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-Louis XVI, m. Marie Antoinette (1774-1792):
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king during the French revolution, found trouble when he attempted to find sources of revenue to pay for his expenses by taxing the nobles; each time the Parlements refused; Louis became seriously unpopular; rumors started spreading that he was attacking the 3rd estate, and that Marie was sleeping around. Louis was the subject of lots of underground literature; and he and his wife decided to flee after the storming of the Bastille. Louis was caught and brought back, but he was never favorable; and he was executed at the guillotine.
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-Parlements:
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french law courts, they were used to register and announce french laws; the members were nobles and and if the king proposed something against customary law, the nobles could send it back; the parlements felt that they were patriots defending liberty
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-Irish Volunteers:
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Ireland, late 1770’s, elites inspired by rebels demand greater autonomy and establish militias to resist Britain; their “volunteer movement” (led by protestants) worried about irish catholics; but they were not successful, and traditional conflicts were seen coming back into play
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-Dutch Patriots:
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another conflict between two ruling groups; dutch were competing with the British commercially and the dutch “patriots” tried to establish place; this incorporated the merchant class and the urban class; the movement fractures but the patriots move elsewhere and spread revolutionary ideas to establish the status quo
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French 1789. what happened
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French Revolution
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Jan-Sieyes. What is the 3rd estate?-
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(1789) ”what is the third estate?” is a book by Sieyes about the third estate being everything. Since the third estate does everything it is the nation. Nobelity are no longer part of the nation because they don’t do anything.
Importance: placing the power in the people’s hands. calling out the first and second estate for no longer contributing to society. |
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May-meeting of estates-general-
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There is a big difference in order depending on the estate (lowers have to take off hats, uppers don’t). third estate is more convinced they cannot win (because 1st and 2nd always agree with one another). Urged by Sieyes to call themselves “The National Assembly” not the third estate
Importance: the national order is beginning to shift. the third estate is realizing their unjust position and are making moves to gain more power/importance. |
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June-tennis Court Oath + National Assembly created
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-third estate is locked out of an estates general meeting, so they assemble in a tennis court and take an oath vowing to never disband until a constitution is created.
Importance: Gets the attention of Louis XVI and causes him to give into the third estate (at least a little bit) Louis says ok to the constitution (england has one), more freedom of the press, but the national assembly is null, estates general proceeds as it is (voting by head and order can survive). too little too late, absolute kingship is over. |
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July- storming of the Bastille-
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July 14, commoners storm the prison looking for arms and to free the prisoners. the guards fire out of fear, gets bloody. and the commoners put the head prison guard's head on a stick. Importance: marks the end of the rule of the monarch. King loses control of third estate, as third estate has now armed themselves.
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July-Aug-great Fear-
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lots of attacking castles and government buildings. take all the grain and leave notes saying “the nation”. basically chaos.
Importance: third estate is coming together and calling themselves “the nation”. the basic idea of a ‘nation’ of people is also new. |
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Aug-Declaration of the Rights of Man-
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declaration written by Lafayette (advised by Jefferson). calls for rights of french people regardless of birth status. no mention of a king, unclear how he fits in.
Importance: document for the third estate holding the king accountable. makes everyone nervous because there is a large split (some people say enough is enough, others want more). |
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Oct-October Days
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-rumors that king is going to try and flee. not enough bread. people march to versaille and bring the king back into the area of the people (back into Paris). march with loafs of bread on the end of guns and spears.
Importance: marks the end of the old era and the beginning of the new, where the king is being held accountable to the people. |
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1792- France declares war on Austriaà French Rev international-
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After the French Revolution, the National Assembly was at a loss of how to unify/ please the French people. They decided that the best way to unify the country was through an international war by instilling patriotism and nationalism. By doing this, the French spread the idea of people revoluting against the monarchy, and also spread the idea that the rights of man was not specific to France, but was a doctrine of humanity that all people were endowed with. All people’s could constitute themselves as nations. The spread of the ideals of the French Revolution put new questions into place for the other countries as well, such as the rights of man, the rights of women, people of color, slavery, and religion.
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Jan 1793 –execution of Louis XVI --> “republic”-
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after Louis fled France in 1791 due to growing tensions with the National Assembly, talk began among the French people to develop a republic. He attacked the Third Estate at the Bastille, so the people already didn’t like him. After the revolution and the creation of the republic, Robespierre said Louis had to be tried and executed if found guilty, implying that Louis had to die in order for the republic to be born. This public act caused fear to stir among monarchs of the other European countries, wondering if it would inspire their people to rise up against them.
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“rights of man”-
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this document gave men their natural rights or Enlightenment rights, while taking away a considerable amount of power from the Catholic church. It got rid of aristocratic privilege, and was a precursor to thoughts that our government embodies today.
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Terror (July 1793-July 1794)-
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due to internationalization and the spread of revolutionary ideas, popular sovereignty, and the rights of man, France established a temporary wartime government instead of a constitution, a government that would be able to deal with extraordinary circumstances. The Terror was an initiative taken by the NA and the sans culottes, to cleanse the nation of traitors and make it possible for republican virtue to prevail. They provided reeducation to love the new republic, to reform everyone, to appeal the their senses. It cleansed the nation of enemies and established a bureaucracy and a draft while attempting to enact enlightenment reforms. Here we see the birth together of potential terrorism emerging right alongside as things that seem democratic and social rev that goes beyond American ex (ppl of color recognized as citizens).
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Sans-culottes-
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they were the working people of France that decided to name themselves after their short pants (their working clothes, because they were always working). They complained that the NA was not reforming quickly enough.
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Robespierre-
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was the head of the French government during the Terror. Was the great hero of the FR. virtue is defined as love of the state. there are enemies everywhere. executed by NA via guilletine. king had to die for the republic to live.
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Saint-Dominique-
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French colony that had more wealth than all Spanish holdings combined in the New World because of its plantation and slave economy. Even after the 7 years war, France had lost a lot of territory, but kept a hold on SD, saving them from economic devastation.
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1791- “free people of color” granted rights – slave revolt begins.
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White colonists in SD demanded representation in 1789. this, in turn, caused the free people of color to send in representatives. French newspapers circulate this --> first successful large scale slave revolt. first step towards the suggestion that citizenship is not based on race.
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1794- slavery abolished in French colonies.
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After the slave revolt in August of 1791, the French tried to step in with troops, which only caused more violence. The Spanish and British thought this would be the perfect time to intervene to finally squash French power. The French accidentally abolished slavery when trying, like the Spanish, to get the natives to fight on their side. Essentially, the French are fighting on the side of the slave revolt
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1794-1801 regime of Touissant L’Overture.
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had been allied with the Spanish but switched over to the French side. Used to be a slave, but at the time owned slaves himself, so was a liason between these two groups. He helped the French retake Martinique and Guadeloupe, so they made him the governor of SD (in ruin from war, slaves become serfs). The victory was symbolic in that it expelled all invading forces including France. The state was comprised of free individuals and run by former slaves.
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1804-SD --> Haiti
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first nation to be governed by former slaves. full break from Europe. long period of stability.
--> movement of slave emancipation in America fear for whites in the new world model for future slave insurrections shows promises and limitations of 18th century rev ideas do republicanism and colonialism go together? |
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Napoleon-
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military genius from Corsica that became known as a war hero for the French. made France into a great military power. combined republicanism, nationalism, and empire building. middle class king
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1797- General Napoleon Bonaparte conquers Italy-
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first time that people notice how good of a military commander he is
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1798-99—NB’s Egyptian campaign-
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wanted to make a shipping path to Asia and block off the British. also because it was the cradle of civilization and because he wanted to “liberate” and conquer the Egyptians. doesnt go well, France is fighting an even bigger coalition. inspires him to lead a coup instead
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1799- NB and Sieyes stage a coup d’etat France-
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military takeover of France. he essentially saved the revolution by dissolving any rev gov’t and putting France back to where it should be. finally brought stability to France. people are giving up political liberty for stability and glory.
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1804-crowning of Napoleon I, Hereditary Emperor of French Republic—empire building beings-
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goes against the definition of a republic, can be an emperor in a place where the people are sovereign. in order to legitimize himself, he decided to start building his empire and attempting to conquer other parts of Europe. sells Louisiana and then moves on to England. combines rep with imperialism and royalty
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“Continental Blockade”-
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his attempts to combat England. He knows that he can’t beat their navy, so he tried to block off their trade, which doesnt work because france needs these goods, and the keep circulating despite efforts against it. international trade has intertwined all of these nations together in terms of dependency.
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1812—Russian campaign-
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in order to rally the empire (who was not content with him) and to stabilize his own regime. this was a huge disaster, no supplies, ragtag collection of recruits from all over his territories. The Russians kept pulling them into a deserted Moscow without engaging. the people were very unhappy. all everyone wanted was his defeat, and a return to individual statehood that existed prior to the revolution. essentially he erased the desires of the French rev, allowing the French to start fresh. he was forced to abdicate after this and was exiled to Elba.
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1814-15—return of Louis XVIII, Hundred Days, exile to St. Helena, Congress of Vienna-
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the allies wanted to restore the status quo, so Austria, Prussia, Russia, and GB met in Vienna (hallmark of absolutism) to talk about restoring old dynastic order. Napoleon comes back for a hundred days, Louis flees, but is exiled again after the battle of Waterloo.
he was a legacy inside of France. Made it possible for the Bourbons to come back to power without ever becoming absolute monarchs or returning to noble feudal order. Represents the acceleration and exportation of a trend towards evermore centralized bureaucratized gov’ts |
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nationalism -
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this first stirred up because people didnt want to be a part of Napoleon’s empire, they wanted to be their own individual states. people showed a resentment to being “liberated” and defended their own local customs
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