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150 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are the three main processes a natural hazard can arise from? |
1. Internal forces within the Earth - i.e. plate tectonics 2. External forces on Earth's surface - driven by the sun = all atmospheric events 3. Gravitational attraction? - driven by gravity = downslope movement |
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What is a hazard? |
A process that poses a potential threat to people or the environment? |
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What is a risk? |
Probability of Event x Impact on People __________________________________________ Environment |
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What is a disaster? |
A brief event that causes great property damage or loss of life |
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What is a catastrophe? |
A massive disasters |
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What types of hazards are more catastrophic? |
Tsunamis, earthquake, volcanoes, hurricanes, floods |
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The impact of a hazard is a function of what? |
Magnitude and frequency - inverse relationship |
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The Tectonic Cycle |
involves the creation, movement, and destruction of tectonic plates |
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What is a tectonic plate |
large blocks of the Earth's crust that form its outer shell there are 14 plates |
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Where is new land formed? |
New land is formed at mid-ocean ridges |
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Where is old land destroyed? |
subduction zones |
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What are the two types of plates? |
1. Oceanic: dense, thin (averages 7km) 2. Continental: buoyant, thick (avergages 30km) |
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Divergent Plate Boundaries |
Plates move away from one another - new land is created - results in seafloor spreading and causes oceanic ridges |
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Convergent Plate Boundaries |
Plates move towards each other - collision of oceanic and continental crust results in subduction zones - oceanic plate sinks and melts |
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Transform Boundaries |
plates slide horizontally past each other - zone where movement occurs is called transform fault ex. San Andreas fault |
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Hot Spots |
spots are magma rises up from the mantle happens away from plate boundaries string of islands usually indicates hot spots |
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Rock Cycle |
refers to a group of interrelates processes that produce three different types of rock - igneous - sedimentary - metamorphic |
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The Hydrologic Cycle |
The movement and exchange of water among the land, atmosphere, and oceans by changes in state - solar energy drives the movement |
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Prediction: |
A specific time, date, location and magnitude of the event |
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Forecast: |
a range of probability for the event |
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Forecast vs. Prediciton |
some hurricanes can be predicted, but an earthquake cannot be an earthquake can only be forecasted |
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Risk |
(probability of an event) x (consequences) |
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Consequence |
damage to people, property, the environment, the economy |
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Acceptable Risk |
The amount of risk that an individual or society is willing to take |
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Direct Effects |
deaths, injuries, displacement of people, damage to property |
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Indirect Effects |
crop failure, starvation, emotional d stress, loss of employment |
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Why can maintaining databases on disaster events be difficult? |
- disasters can co-occur - mortality can be hard to count - general lack of census taking |
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What events qualify as a disaster? |
Threshold developed by the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) - 10 or more deaths OR 100 people seriously affected OR government declares it OR ask for international assistance |
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What are some exceptions to the CRED threshold? |
droughts or famine = 2000 people technological disasters = 5 people |
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For disasters what does the media tend to focus on? |
- human impact - visual impact - events close to home - prioritized according to North American perspective |
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Where are technological disasters more likely to occur? |
Industrialized countries |
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Haiti Earthquake |
- poorest country in western hemisphere - happened in capital city (epicentre) Port De Prince - M 7.0 earthquake occurred in 2010 - one of the worst natural disasters in history - death toll: over 220,000 - occurred along a transform fault |
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Reasons for increased Impacts
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1. Land Pressure: ~1 billion people live on degraded land 2. Urbanization |
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The vulnerability to disaster is a function of? |
resiliency and reliability |
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Resiliency |
The rate of recovery from occurrence of an event |
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Reliability |
The frequency with which protective devices against disasters are able to withstand the disasters |
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Risk Assessment |
Involves estimating the likelihood that a particular event will harm human health |
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Risk Management |
Involves deciding on how to reduce a risk and at what cost |
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Risk equation |
R = P * L R= risk P= Probability of hazard occurring L = loss |
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What is the risk associate with a technological system? |
the overall reliability of a technological system is a product of 2 factors system reliability = technological reliability * human reliability |
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What is the risk factor leading to reduction in life expectancy? |
Poverty linked to: malnutrition, increased susceptibility to fatal diseases, lack of access to health care, contaminated water |
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What are some events capable of triggering tsunamis? |
- earthquakes that cause uplift of the seafloor - landslides - Volcano flank (side) collapse) - Underwater volcanic eruptions - Meteorites |
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How can Earthquakes cause tsunamis? |
1. by displacement of the seafloor (vertical movement) 2. by triggering a landslide that enters the water |
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Stages of an Earthquake triggers Tsunami |
Stage 1: Displacement of the seafloor sets wave in motion that transmit energy upward and outward. When waves reach the surface of the water, they spread outward Stage 2: Waves move rapidly across the open ocean, the spacing of the wave crests is very large, height (amplitude) of the waves is often small Stage 3: as the tsunami approaches land, the water depth decreases, this results in the water piling up and causes these effects: - a decrease in wave speed - a decrease in spacing of the waves - an increase in wave amplitude Stage 4: As the tsunami impacts land, waves can reach heights of dozens of meters, the wave speed can be up 1o 50km/h -- impossible to outrun |
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Tsunami Event: Run off |
the maximum horizontal and vertical distances that the largest wave of a tsunami reaches as it travels inland - essentially describes the geographic area impacted by a tsunami |
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Distant tsunami |
travel thousands of kilometres across the open ocean on remote shorelines across the ocean, reduced energy lessens its impact also called tele-tsunamis |
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Local tsunami |
that affects shorelines a few km to about 100km for its source because of this short distance, local tsunamis provide little warning |
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What regions are the most at risk for tsunamis? |
coasts located near subduction zones or across oceans from subduction zones are most at risk - Pacific ocean and the mediterranean sea |
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Primary effects of Tsunamis |
flooding and erosion destroy beaches, coastal vegetation, and infrastructure Once the tsunami retreats, debris is left behind most tsunami deaths are causes from drowning. injuries result from physical impacts with debris |
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Secondary effects of Tsunamis |
these are effects that generally occur after the event is over Fires may develop due ruptured gas lines or from ignition of flammable chemicals Water supplies may become contaminated and water-borne diseases may spread |
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Indian Ocean Tsunami |
catastrophic event occurred in 2004 the source was a M 9.1 earthquake off the west coast of Sumatra The earthquake occurred in a subduction zone between the Burma and Indian-Australian plates Plates have been locked for over 150 years, thus allowing strain to build reached shore in several minutes, people caught by surprise and over 230,000 died |
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How are tsunamis detected? |
The Pacific Ocean warning system uses a network of seismographs to estimate earthquake magnitude sensors electronically connected to buoys verify a tsunami was produced they rest on the seafloor and measure changes in water pressure passing over them these sensors are called tsunametres |
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What are Inundation Maps? |
Maps showing the run-up of previous tsunamis are created to help plan for future events |
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Japan Tsunami |
- 2011 catastrophic event - source: M 9.0 earthquake 70n off the east coast of Japan - warning issued nearly an hour before it arrival - over 15,000 people died and damage to Japan's infrastructure |
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What are the categories of adjustment? |
1. Modify the Loss Burden: loss sharing, spread the burden well beyond immediate victims (ex. insurance, relief aid) 2. Modify Design: loss reduction, requires a knowledge base of the hazard (ex. retrofitting buildings) 3. Modify Human Vulnerability: adjust the population to the possible events (ex. preparedness programs, land use programming, warning systems) |
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What are the two losses scenarios? |
1. Accepting Loss: no-action response, the "free" choice - people choose to live how they want regardless of the hazard risk 2. Sharing the Loss: the government-action response, there may be laws in place preventing people from living in certain areas |
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What are some problems of sharing loss? |
- a disaster of sudden onset is likely to draw more money than another similarly serious disaster - donor fatigue can set in if there are many disasters - Recovery can take a very long time in some countries - aid and enthusiasm to donate eventually wanes |
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What are some factors affecting individual adjustment choices for hazards? |
1. Experience 2. Material Wealth 3. Personality |
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What is prospect theory? |
People are more willing to protect against a loser than they are willing to gamble on an equivalent gain |
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What are some human response to hazards? |
1. Cultural Adjustment: may result from changes in an environment 2. Purposeful Adjustment: is specifically designed to reduce loss or damage (ex. designing building to withstand earthquakes) 3. Incidental Adjustment: these are not primarily hazard-related but they have the effect of reducing potential loss (ex. advances in technology have improved warning systems) |
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What is absorptive capacity? |
a measure of the ability of people to sustain impacts of a hazard it results from a combination of cultural, purposeful, and incidental adjustments |
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What is Gambler's Fallacy? |
The belief that the occurrence of a change event influences the probability of future occurrences |
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What are the 4 patterns of how people choose to respond to risk? |
1. Absorb: view the risk as unproblematic or deny it outright - probability is deemed to low to worry about it - date is determined by the capacity to absorb losses ex. San Andres Fault 2. Accept: there is awareness of the hazard (no denial) - passive attitude - hazards are tens teens as an act of Go 3. Reduce: there is awareness of the hazard - action is taken to reduce impacts (usually reactive) - usually stay in same place 4. Change: there is awareness of the hazard -radical action may be taken |
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What is an evocative hazard? |
These are hazards that evoke a lot of public concern but aren't very serious or not a big threat ex. Pesticides |
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What is a banal hazard? |
These are hazards that are known to be relatively serious but typically evoke littler public reaction |
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What is amplification of risk? |
involves hazards that have a low probability elicit strong public concern |
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What is attenuation of risk? |
involves hazards that may have seriously physical impacts and relatively high probability elicit weak public concern |
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What is a transmitter? |
generates the message and sends it out |
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What is a signal? |
the message itself |
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What is a receiver |
the target audience the original signal may be considerably modified by the time it reaches the receiver |
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What is stigmatization |
it is a process where negative images are ascribed to places, technologies, or people the risk perception of a future event in the area could be altered simply because of past events |
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What are the 5 Risk perception theories |
1. Knowledge Theory: greater knowledge of fatality data leads to greater perceived threat from technology 2. Personality Theory: there is a consistency between the personality type and perceived threat 3. Economic Theory: the wealthier are more willing to take risks 4. Political Theory: personal views toward risk are related to the political party (& politics) that people support 5. Cultural Theory: the worldview is correlated to how the person perceives risk -- based on the way of life of people. There are three world views (1. Hierarchical, Egalitarian, Individualism) ** best explanation to how people perceive risk) |
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What is the hierarchical worldview? |
defines boundaries between superiors and subordinates |
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What is the egalitarian worldview? |
centres on political solutions to inequality |
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What is the individualism worldview? |
emphasis on personal freedom and choice |
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What is a landslide? |
a downslope movement or rock or sediment as a result of gravity movement is classified as rapid if it can be detected by eye |
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The classification of landslides are based on what 4 variables? |
1. mechanism of movement 2. type of material 3. amount of water 4. speed of movement |
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What are the three basic mechanisms of movement? |
1. Fall: rock o sediment dropping off the face of a cliff 2. Slide: downslope movement along a discrete failure plane 3. Flow: movement of particles semi-independently of one another, commonly with the aid of water |
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What is rock fall? |
this mass movement is caused by a fall mechanism is involved rocks rolling down a steep slope or failing in the air |
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What is slump? |
this mass movement is caused b a slide mechanism? |
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What is creep? |
this mass movement is caused by a flow mechanism - speed of movement ranges from a few mm to a m annually |
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What is the stability of a slope based on the balance of? |
Driving Force: moves material downward, based on the weight of the material Resisting Force: oppose downslope movement, based on the shear strength of the material |
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Define factor of safety |
Rf/dF (resisting force divided by driving force) when the ratio is over 1, the slope is stable if it is under 1 sloper is unstable |
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What type of slope is associated with each mechanism? |
steepest slope = rock fall moderate slopes = flow gentle slopes = creep |
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What is topographic relief? |
The height of a hill or mountain above the land around it difference between the peak and the plateau |
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How does climate influence landslides? |
the climate of an area influences the amount of water that infiltrates and erodes the soil in dry climates vegetation is sparse, soil is thin and bare rock is exposed = rock falls are more likely in humid climate, soil is thick and rock is generally covered with soil and vegetation = flows and creep are more likely |
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How does vegetation influence landslides? |
dense vegetation can slow surface erosion roots add strength and cohesion to the slope improper deforestation increases landslides |
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How does water influence landslides? |
Water saturates soil increasing the likelihood of flows following prolonged period of deep water infiltration slumps can develop water can also erode the base of a slope therefore decreasing its resting force |
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What areas are at risk of landslides? |
Any location with significant variation in topography increase by: urbanization, deforestation, and climate change |
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The Frank Slide |
Canada's best know land-slide, occurred in 1903 on Turtle Mountain in Alberta killed 76 people (very rare), dammed the Gowarest River creating a lake and buried 5 km of railway |
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What are some natural service functions of landslides?
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can result in the development of new habitat in forests and quits ecosystems therefore increased biodiversity can carry down valuable minerals, becoming easier to extract |
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What are some features of an unstable slope? |
cracks on hillside recessed crest of a valley wall large boulders or talus (irregular land base) at a clidd base tilted trees exposed bedrock |
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What are some preventative measures for landslides? |
1. Drainage Control: remove excess water from the soil 2. Levelling the Slope 3. Slope Supports |
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What is a tilitmeter? |
landslide warning system used to detect moment along a slope, measures changes in the angle |
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What drives the hydrologic cycle? |
The sun's energy, and therefore it drives all weather phenomena on Earth |
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What is the composition of the atmosphere? |
78% Nitrogen 21% Oxygen 1% trace elements = water vapour, carbon dioxide, and other trace gases |
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The structure of the atmosphere |
Troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere all weather is confined in the troposphere ozone layer is found in the stratosphere |
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What are prefixes and suffixes for cloud names? |
Prefixes: Suffixes: High: cirro Puffy: cumulus Mid: alto Flat: stratus Low: strato Clouds that produce precipitation contain nimb in the name nimbostratus: prolonged precipitation cumulusnimbos: thunderstorm |
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What is a front? |
A front marks the boundary between two air masses the name of the front describes the type of air behind that front At a cold front, dense cold air undercuts warm air At a warm front, the less dense warm air overrides cold air |
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What does thunderstorm development require? |
1. An unstable environment (a steep vertical temperature gradient between found level and troposphere) 2. water vapour 3. Rising air (or a lifting mechanisms = a front) |
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What are the three stages of a thunderstorm? |
1. Cumulus (developing) Stage 2. Mature Stage 3. Dissipative Stage most storms pass through all stages within an hour |
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How is hail formed? |
It is formed during thunderstorms in very tall clouds updrafts in the cloud repeatedly force a water droplet upward the droplet develops a ring of ice around it each time it enters the cold part of the cloud the ball of ice eventually becomes heavy enough to fall to the surface |
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Define Lightning |
a spark of electricity occurring in a cloud the majority of lightning strikes within the cloud lightning heats the air causing the air to expand thus creating a shockwave (thunder) |
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What is the main requirement for lightning? |
A cumulonimbus cloud containing a region of opposite charges the interaction of ice crystals, hailstones, and water droplets results in a separate distribution of charges in a cloud |
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Define tornado |
A rotating column of air touching the ground that formed within a supercell thunderstorm a rotating column not touching the ground is called a funnel cloud |
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What are the three stages of a tornado? |
1. Organizational Stage: - wind shear causes rotation to develop wind shear = a change in wind speed or direction over a distance - funnel cloud protrudes from above - dust and debris rotates beneath 2. Mature Stage: most severe damage occurs at this stage 3. Rope Stage: the tornado stretches out and weakens |
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How are tornadoes classified? |
- Enhanced Fujita Scale - classified on a scale of EF0 to EF5, based on the damage produced EF5 toradoes: complete devastation, wind speed over 322km/h, less than 1% of tornadoes are classified an EF5 |
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Where are the two tornado alleys in North America? |
The US experiences the most tornadoes on Earth, followed by Canada United States Tornado Alley: Kansas and Oklahoma Canada Tornado Alley: Southwester Ontario |
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Why do tornado alleys exist? |
there are areas where air masses commonly collide they are areas of relatively flat land (allows for undisturbed rotation) |
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What is a tropical Cyclone? |
form over warm water at latitudes 5-20degrees includes tropical depression, tropical storms, and hurricanes they contain high winds, heavy rain, and storm surges |
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What is an Extratropical Cyclone? |
These form over land or water in temperate regions at latitudes 30-70degrees They are associated with fronts and are also called mid-latitude cyclones they contain rain, snow, freezing rain |
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What are the stages of a Tropical Cyclone development? |
1. Tropical Disturbance: a large area of low pressure with unsettled weather 2. Tropical DepressionL an unorganized area of thunderstorms 3. Tropical Storm: an organized area of storms with winds 65-119km/h 4. Hurricane: an area of low pressure with wind of at least 120km/h |
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What water temperature does a tropical cyclone require? |
26 degrees Celsius |
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What are the components of a Hurricane |
Eye: a region in the centre with light winds and clear to partly cloudy skies - air is sinking, no clouds can form Eyewall: a ring of intense thunderstorms that whirl directly around the eye Serial Rain Bands: rings of tall clouds and heavy rain that exist throughout the hurricane |
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How does naming of hurricanes work? |
Names first assigned in 1953 switch between male and female names in alphabetical order, 5 letters are skipped (Q,U,X,Y,Z) Name is retired if the hurricane produced notable damage Names were exhausted for the first time in 2005, when over 27 hurricanes occurred, the final six named after greek letters |
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How do hurricanes move? |
typically they travel very slowly (less than 20km/h) Because wind in a hurricane rotates counter-clockwise, wind speed varies over the area of the hurricane |
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What is a Storm Surge? |
the most devastating effect of hurricanes its results from powerful winds creating an abnormal rise in sea level |
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How are hurricanes classified? |
Classified on the Saffir-Simpson Scale classification is similar to tornadoes (both based on wind speed) range from 1-5 |
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What is FOG? |
it is a cloud with its base at the Earth's surface that reduces visibility to less than 1km it occurs at night when the air cools to the dew point (at which point water vapour condenses into droplets) Fog can slo form when warm air moves over a cold body of water |
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What are the conditions of a blizzard? |
They are intense winter storms - wind of at least 40km/h - snow falling & blowing snow - visibility less than 400m all of these must occur for at least 4 hours blizzards are more rare than snowstorms and more common in the prairies |
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What is Lake Effect Snow? |
It is causes by cold air moving over relatively warm water Snowballs are found downwind of lakes |
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What is a Sandstorm? |
The occur in arid and semi-arid regions they are especially common in the Middle East where they are called haboobs |
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What causes a haboob to form? |
Downdrafts on the leading edge of a thunderstorm |
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What is a dust devil? |
It is a small spinning vortex of air formed over hot, dry land, All hot air rises, the wind direction may change due to obstacles, this may results in a spinning column of air = dust devil |
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What is a drought? |
An extended period of unusually low precipitation -droughts affect more people in NA than any other hazard They use water shortages that can lead to crop failure Droughts are linked to global weather patterns and are a normal part of the climate system |
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What is Wind Chill? |
it is a correction factor to a temperature reading caused by the presence of wind making the air feel cooler than the temperature suggests |
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What is Humidex? |
It is a correction factor to a temperature reading causes by high levels of humidity making the air feel warmer than the temperature suggests |
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What are the three categories of Alerts? |
Watch: an alert covering a wide area - conditions favour the development of hazardous weather but none have been reported Warning: an alert that usually covers smaller areas - it indicates that hazardous weather is currently occurring in the area Advisory: Used to alert to public of less hazardous weather conditions |
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What are some examples of "spheres" |
atmosphere: gases hydrosphere: oceans, large bodies of water lithosphere: plate tectonics, orogeny cryosphere: glaciers, ice sheets, snow cover biosphere: vegetation, animals, humans |
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What are four general causes of climate change? |
1. Variations in solar radition - everything starts with the sun's energy 2. Changes in composition of the atmosphere - changing gases in atmosphere 3. Changes in Earth's surface - plate tectonics 4. Variations in Earth's orbit - as it revolves around the sun |
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What is a sunspot? |
A cool region of high magnetism on the sun - the sun tends to produce more energy during periods of high sunspot activity sunspots occur in cycles and reach a maximum every 11 years sunspots are surrounded by faculae (bright areas that emit high among of energy) |
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What is Maunder Minimum |
1645-1715 - a time period with no sunspots;this corresponds to a time period known as the Little Ice Age |
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What is an Ice core? |
A way of determining past climates - the width of an ice layer provides insight on the temperature and snowfall of that year - each year, a new layer of ice forms - bubbles of air are trapped in the ice ice cores provide climate data for up to 600,000 years in the past |
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What is dendrochronology? |
The study of tree rings wider tree rings correspond to warmer/wetter years tree rings provide climate data for up to 1000 years in the past |
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Milankovitch Theory |
propose that three separate phonemes relating to Earth's orbit lead to climate change 1. eccentricity of earth's orbit: - changes in the shape of Earth's orbit from circular to elliptical - 100,000 year cycle 2. precession - the wobble of the Earth's axis - 23,000 year cycle 3. obliquity - changes in the title of Earth's axis - 41,000 year cycle |
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Why does the greenhouse effect exist? |
Greenhouse gases allow solar radiation to pass through but they absorb infrared radiation |
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What are three main greenhouse gases? |
Carbon dioxide
Water Vapour Methane |
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What is Ozone? |
It is a gas composed of oxygen with an odour similar to chlorine forms naturally in the stratosphere froms in the troposphere by chemical reactions whither gases Ozone in the stratosphere is important because it protects us from UV rays |
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Explain the destruction of the Ozone layer? |
CFCs are the major reason for the depletion of the ozone layer during the 1900s Montreal Protocol (1987) a highly successful worldwide agreement among countries to reduce CFC concentrations UV radiation breaks up the CFC molecules causing there release of chlorine, and chlorine destroys the ozone |
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What is Acid Precipitation |
precipitation that combines with pollutants that turn the precipitation acidic main sources: sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides Effects: slows tree growth, reduces fish population in lakes, and erodes materials Measure on the Ph scale, rain is naturally precipitation (~5.5) |
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What is Positive Feedback? |
A process in a system that encourages the continuation of the original process ex. less snow/ice decreases the reflectivity of solar radiation, therefore, after snow/ice melts, more solar radiation is absorbed rather than effects |
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How do climate models work? |
By solving a series of mathematical equations to tell us how much the Earth will warm
climate models forecast that over the next 100 years, the earth will warm by at least 1.5C |
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Kyoto Protocol (1997) |
a global agreement aiming to slow climate change objective: to reduce greenhouse gas emission to 5% below 1990 levels by 2010 |
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What are some impacts of climate change? |
Polar ares will warm the most boreal forests will expand northward, agriculture will shift northward precipitation patterns will change thus affecting habitats there may be increased intensity of tropical storms and hurricanes |
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What is the relationship between humans and nature? |
two differing philosophies 1. Humans are simply one component of the natural world 2. Humans are separate from nature |
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What are the problems with natural resources |
1. many natural resources are finite 2. using resources creates waste product - we have created a society and economy in which these 2 realties are neglected |
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What is the Precautionary Principle? |
Example of its use: 1. Insurance policies 2. Preventative maintained Applied to environmental change: - balance between the potential harm and costs of inaction compared to the potential wasted costs of acting unnecessarily |
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What are photovoltaics? |
they convert light directly in electricity |
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Explain wind energy |
It is a renewable and pollution free source of energy Wind farms are viable in ares with constant, moderate winds Problems: - cost - noise - habitat disruption - general appearance |
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What are some implications of large hydrolytic energy projects? |
1. Loss of land to flooding 2. displaced population 3. leaching (into soil) 4. destruction of habitats |
