Gross Anatomy 1 - Exam 1

Front 1

What is Myology?

Back 1

Branch of Anatomy that deals with the muscular system.

Front 2

What is contractility?

Back 2

The basic property of skeletal which enables us to produce movement.

Front 3

Functions of muscle
movement

Back 3

enables us to move around. Locomotion - lower extremity.
manual dexterity - upper extremity
move body contents during respiration, circulation, digestion defecation, urination.

Front 4

Functions of muscle
stability

Back 4

maintain posture
hold articulated bones in place

Front 5

Functions of muscle
communication

Back 5

speech
facial expression
writing
user upper extremity ie pointing

Front 6

Functions of muscle
control of body openings and passages

Back 6

Sphincter muscles around eyelids, pupils, mouth control the admission of light, food and drink. Urethral and anal orifices control elimination of waste.

Front 7

Functions of muscle
heat production

Back 7

produce as much as 85% of body heat.

Front 8

What are muscle fibers

Back 8

basic structural unit of muscle.

Front 9

What are fasciculi

Back 9

muscle fibers grouped into bundles

Front 10

What is the Endomysium

Back 10

The delicate sheath which surround each individual muscle fiber and binds it to the adjacent muscle fiber

Front 11

What is the Perimysium

Back 11

a more dense layer which surround each fasciculi and divides the muscle into a series of separate compartments.

Front 12

What is the Epimysium

Back 12

dense irregular connective layer which surrounds the entire skeletal muscle and separates the muscle from surrounding tissue, organs and other muscles. Turns into the muscle tendon.

Front 13

Function of connective tissue 1

Back 13

connect muscle to bone or other structures

Front 14

Function of connective tissue 2

Back 14

provides route through which nerves and blood vessels can reach the muscle fiber

Front 15

Function of connective tissue 3

Back 15

provides a non contractile framework which allows the contraction of a muscle fiber to be transmitted to bone.

Front 16

Talk about the microscopic anatomy of muscle fibers. List 3 important features.

Back 16

1. extremely long and multinucleate with nuclei arranged around periphery. 2. Each fiber contains numerous myofibrils(contractile unit of cell)
3. each fiber is contained within a membrane known as sarcolemma.

Front 17

What is hypertrophy

Back 17

term used to describe the type of increase in the size of a muscle due to an increase in the size of each muscle fiber.

Front 18

What is hyperplasia

Back 18

term used to indicate an increase in the size of a muscle due to an actual increase in the number of muscle fibers.

Front 19

What is the sarcoplasm

Back 19

undifferentiated cytoplasm between the myofibrils and the other organelles of the muscle fibers.

Front 20

What kind of muscles are Type 1 Fibers (dark) found in?

Back 20

muscles involved in long, sustained or continued contractions: posture maintaining muscles, ocular, respiratory and masticatory muscles.

Front 21

Where are Type II (light) fibers found?

Back 21

places where you want quicker and more powerful contractions and are thus related to speed and strength.

Front 22

Which muscle fibers have a greater capacity for Anaerobic metabolism? Aerobic metabolism?

Back 22

Type II fibers need less oxygen, they have a greater capacity for anaerobic metabolism.
Type I fibers are suited for high levels of continues metabolic activity and are associated with aerobic metabolism.

Front 23

Characteristics of Type I muscle fibers

Back 23

large amounds of sarcoplasm and myoglobin.
extensive capillary beds
slow twitch fibers
fatigue resistant
numerous mitochondria
more fatty acids, less glycogen
atrophy with immobilization

Front 24

Characteristics of Type II muscle fibers

Back 24

lesser amounts of sarcoplasm and myoglobin
fewer capillary beds
fast twitch fibers
fatigue easier
fewer mitochondria
more glycogen/fewer fatty acids
atrophy with aging

Front 25

What are intermediate fibers

Back 25

fibers that exhibit characteristics which are somewhere between type I and type II fibers.

Front 26

What is the sarcolemma

Back 26

the cell membrane

Front 27

What is the sarcoplasmic reticulum

Back 27

an elaborate, continuous tubular network which runs both parallel and perpendicular to the myofibrils. Function to store and transport calcium ions.

Front 28

What are transverse tubules

Back 28

tubular invaginations of the sarcolemma which allow electrical impulses to enter the muscle fiber and make their way to the myofibrils.

Front 29

what is myoglobin

Back 29

red protein pigment. very similar to hemoglobin. Gives color to muscles and stores needed oxygen for muscle metabolism.

Front 30

what are myofibrils

Back 30

contractile apparatus of the muscle fibers. Formed from bundles of thick and thin filaments called myofilaments.

Front 31

I-Bands

Back 31

Light areas - hint, eyes see light.

Front 32

A-Bands

Back 32

Dark areas - hint, there's an A in Dark.

Front 33

H-Bands

Back 33

the light area in the middle of each dark band.

Front 34

M-Band

Back 34

Thin line down the center of each H-Band

Front 35

Z Discs

Back 35

thin dark line in the middle of each I-Band

Front 36

Sarcomeres

Back 36

smallest functional unit of a myofibril

Front 37

Name the two contractile proteins

Back 37

Actin, Myosin

Front 38

Where is actin found

Back 38

found mainly in the I-band

Front 39

Where is myosin found

Back 39

found mainly in the A-bands

Front 40

Name the two most common regulatory proteins

Back 40

Troponin and Tropomyosin

Front 41

What are regulatory proteins

Back 41

proteins that act as inhibitory force associated with the actin filaments that prevent the myosin heads from interacting with each other preventing indiscriminate muscular movement.

Front 42

Calcium

Back 42

Eliminates the inhibition caused by the regulatory proteins thus allowing subsequent muscular contractions to occur.

Front 43

ATP

Back 43

fuel of the muscle, its energy requirement. Allows muscles to contract.

Front 44

What is rigor mortis

Back 44

few hours after death when muscle fibers run out of ATP and calcium ions are not removed from the sarcoplasm. The actin and myosin cannot detach and the muscle gets locked into place.

Front 45

ATP production
aerobic pathway

Back 45

Takes place in mitochondria. More efficient way to produce atp in a muscle fiber. Excess energy released as heat. Prefers fatty acids to produce atp.

Front 46

ATP Production
anaerobic pathway

Back 46

depends on creatine phosphate and glycogen to produce atp. Creatine works right away, glycogen produces atp by glycolysis. Lactic acid is a byproduct. Provides muscle energy to get started while aerobic pathway gears up.

Front 47

Exercise from a metabolic point of view(ie production of ATP)
Phase one

Back 47

lasts for first few minutes. creatine phosphate and glycogen are primary fuel sources. 20% of total glycogen in body used during this phase

Front 48

Exercise from a metabolic point of view(ie production of ATP)
Phase two

Back 48

shift in metabolism to the more efficient aerobic metabolism and the use of fatty acids to produce ATP.

Front 49

Exercise from a metabolic point of view(ie production of ATP)
Phase three

Back 49

occurs as exercise intensifies. muscle fibers go back to anaerobic production of ATP and thus the utilization of the remaining stored glycogen. Lactic acid accumulates in this phase.

Front 50

Ergogenic Methods to Increase Muscle Function and Size
Glycogen and Carbohydrate loading
Day 1 -

Back 50

Work out to exhaustion to deplete stored glycogen in muscles.

Front 51

Ergogenic Methods to Increase Muscle Function and Size
Glycogen and Carbohydrate loading
Day 2-4

Back 51

Continue to exercise and eat a diet mainly high in fats and proteins. Limit carbs.

Front 52

Ergogenic Methods to Increase Muscle Function and Size
Glycogen and Carbohydrate loading
Day 5-7

Back 52

No exercise and eat a diet high in carbohydrates.

Front 53

How does Carbohydrate loading help?

Back 53

by the end of day four body will store more glycogen than normal. The the last three days the body will replenish the glycogen stores and top them off with a little bit extra.

Front 54

Side effects of carbohydrate loading

Back 54

light headed, dizzy, lethargic
imbalances and increases in blood pressure.
mental acuity may suffer, judgment impaired.
every gram of glycogen stored in muscle causes an increase in 3 grams of water.

Front 55

Ergogenic Methods to Increase Muscle Function and Size
Caffeine
Phase 1

Back 55

Amount of caffeine in two cups of coffee, ingested one hour before event may help athlete by burning fatty acids more efficiently making it easer to release fatty acids into the blood.

Front 56

Ergogenic Methods to Increase Muscle Function and Size
Caffeine
Phase 1

Back 56

Calcium permeability increased

Front 57

How does caffeine help performance?

Back 57

The effect on fatty acids should delay the utilization of glycogen and could give an advantage during endurance competitions.

Front 58

Caffeine side effects

Back 58

Nervousness and it can act as a diuretic.

Front 59

Ergogenic Methods to Increase Muscle Function and Size
Blood Doping(induced erythrocythemia)

Back 59

increases oxygen carrying capacity of red blood cells, thus increasing endurance.

Front 60

Ergogenic Methods to Increase Muscle Function and Size
Blood Doping(induced erythrocythemia)
phase 1

Back 60

6 weeks before withdraw 4 units of blood. Centrifuge it. Keep RBCs cold. 1 week before event thaw it out and inject it.

Front 61

Ergogenic Methods to Increase Muscle Function and Size
Blood Doping(induced erythrocythemia)
Risks

Back 61

Rashes, fevers
acute hemolysis (breakdown of RBCs)
transmission of viruses.
Fluid overload leading to kidney damage and intravascular clotting of blood.

Front 62

Another way to increase RBC concentration?

Back 62

Synthetic erythropoietin. Acts on the bone marrow to produce more red blood cells. Synthetic version mimics the natural one. Made to help patients with certain kinds of anemia. Can lead to high blood levels and can lead to death.

Front 63

Ergogenic Methods to Increase Muscle Function and Size
Anabolic Steroids
What are they?

Back 63

Synthetic production of male hormone testosterone. Developed to seperate anabolic effect and androgenic effects.

Front 64

What is the difference between Anabolic and Androgenic?

Back 64

Anabolic effects refer to the stimulation of protein synthesis, while androgenic refers to the stimulation of the male secondary sex characteristics.

Front 65

When were steroids added to the IOC list of banned substances?

Back 65

1975. In 1990 they were reclassified by the US government as a schedule III controlled substance.

Front 66

Difference between oil based and water based steroids?

Back 66

Oil based are injected and have fewer side effects but are detectable for several months. Water based are taken in a pill for. Have more side effects but cleared from system within 3-4 weeks. Patches and gels are also available.

Front 67

What is stacking?

Back 67

Taking several forms of steroid, used in cycles of 6-8 weeks in amounts that can be as high as 500X what would be used for therapeutic reasons.

Front 68

short term side effects of steroids

Back 68

headaches, dizziness nausea
acne, on the back
shrinkage of your BALLS
increased aggressiveness
gynecomastia (dev of breast tissue)
tendon damage(steroids have no effect on tendons, just muscle)

Front 69

Long term side effects of steroids

Back 69

cardiovascular problems, hepatic, reproductive and endocrine system problems.

Front 70

Side effects of steroids in women

Back 70

increase of the clitoris, development of facial hair and deepening of the voice. Tendon damage.

Front 71

Physiological effects of anabolic steroids

Back 71

Increased secretion of growth hormone
activates protein synthesis and prevents protein breakdown.

Front 72

legitimate uses of anabolic steroids include

Back 72

Restore hormonal levels in hypogonadal men. Improve mood and alleviate depression. Increases body weight, appetite and muscle mass in chronically ill patients.

Front 73

What is the chemical composition of muscle?

Back 73

75% water
20% protein
5% others

*eyeball is 35% protein.

Front 74

Nerve Supply
Each muscle is suppled with a ________ and a _________

Back 74

Motor nerve fiber and a sensory nerve fiber

Front 75

Motor nerves transmit ________ or ________

Back 75

Efferent or motor impulses

Front 76

What is a motor unit?

Back 76

The single motor neuron and the group of muscle fibers which it innervates are known as the motor unit.

Front 77

The size of a motor unit is an indication of what?

Back 77

How fine the control (precision) of movement can be. Eye motor units contain 2 or 3 fibers. Legs contain around 2000.

Front 78

Anatomically the motor unit is divided into what parts?

Back 78

Motor Neuron
Spinal nerves and peripheral nerves
neuromuscular junction
muscle fibers

Front 79

What is the neuromuscular junction?

Back 79

physiologically and biochemically complex portion of the motor unit. consists of a presynaptic portion and the postsynaptic portion(sarcolemme of the muscle fiber)

Front 80

The presynaptic and postsynaptic portions are seperated from each other by a space known as?

Back 80

the synaptic cleft

Front 81

How the nerve impulse makes its way from the Presynaptic portion to the Postsynaptic portion of the neuromuscular junction:

Step 1

Back 81

When nerve impulse reaches the presynaptic portion of of the neuromuscular junction, a neurotransmitter chemical ACH is released

Front 82

How the nerve impulse makes its way from the Presynaptic portion to the Postsynaptic portion of the neuromuscular junction:

Step 2

Back 82

ASCH will diffuse across the synaptic cleft where it will bind to very specific receptor sites on the sarcolemma of the muscle.

Front 83

How the nerve impulse makes its way from the Presynaptic portion to the Postsynaptic portion of the neuromuscular junction:

Step 3

Back 83

binding results in setting off an action potential down the transverse tubules which will lead to interaction between the actin and myosin causing contraction.

Front 84

How the nerve impulse makes its way from the Presynaptic portion to the Postsynaptic portion of the neuromuscular junction:

Step 4

Back 84

When the ACH has completed its task, it will be broken down by an enzyme known as acetylcholinesterase. This enzyme destroys the ACH by degrading it down into acetate and choline.

Front 85

What is myesthenia gravis?

Back 85

most common neuromuscular junction disorder. Autoimmune disorder. The body produces abnormal antibodies which damage and destroy the ACH receptor sites on the sarcolemma.

Front 86

How does nicotine affect the neuromuscular junction?

Back 86

It competes with ACH receptors in binding to ACH receptor sites. It's actions are much more prolonged than ACH.

Front 87

how does snake venom effect the neuromuscular junction?

Back 87

Prevents ACH from binding to the receptor sites, because the molecules of the venom bind to the ACH receptor sites.

Front 88

How do organophosphates effect the neuromuscular junction?

Back 88

chemicals such as parathion and malathion which are found in insecticides. They activate the ACHe enzyme so ACH can no longer be rapidly hydrolyzed resulting in an accumulation of ACH at the post synaptic portion of the junction.

Front 89

How does botulin toxin effect the neuromuscular junction?

Back 89

blocks the release of ACH from the presynaptic portion of the neuromuscular junction. Leads to rapid and progressive muscle weakness.

Front 90

T or F
Are the muscle fibers of a single motor unit considerably scattered throughout the width and length of the muscle?

Back 90

True

Front 91

what are the two functions of sensory nerve fibers for skeletal muscle?

Back 91

Pain, proprioception

Front 92

why are muscle spindles classified as proprioceptors?

Back 92

They detect stretch in a muscle and trigger skeletal muscle reflexes

Front 93

What are the differences between intrafusal and extrafusal fibers?

Back 93

Intrafusal fibers have both efferent and afferent nerve fibers associated with them. Extrafusal fibers have only efferent nerve fibers.

Front 94

What is the third most complex sensory organ in the human body?

Back 94

muscle spindle

Front 95

What is the golgi tendon organ?

Back 95

detects stretch in a tendon and triggers a reflex that inhibits muscle contractions to avoid muscle or tendon injury

Front 96

What is the origin?

Back 96

end of the muscle which attaches to the more or less stationary part of the skeleton

Front 97

What is the insertion?

Back 97

end attached to the portion of the skeleton which moves when the muscle contracts. Attachment is always by a tendon.

Front 98

What is the belly?

Back 98

term for the intermediate fleshy portion of the muscle.

Front 99

What is a tendon

Back 99

connective portion of a muscle which attaches to a bone

Front 100

What is a tendon composed of?

Back 100

collagen fibers

Front 101

What is tensile strength?

Back 101

defined as the load necessary to rupture a given material when pulled in the direction of its length.

Front 102

Tendons give muscle four advantages.
What is the first one?

Back 102

improves leverage by concentrating the force of a muscle on a small area

Front 103

Tendons give muscle four advantages.
What is the second one?

Back 103

economizes space and maintains limb conformity

Front 104

Tendons give muscle four advantages.
What is the third one?

Back 104

acts as a dampin tissue to absorb shock and limit potential damage to bone and muscle.

Front 105

Tendons give muscle four advantages.
What is the fourth one?

Back 105

flexible so that they can bend at joints.

Front 106

what are sharpey's fibers?

Back 106

collagen fibers which penetrate the bone

Front 107

T or F
Sharpeys fibers are so strong that even with severe traction injuries the tendon does not pull out of the bone. Instead, an avulsion fraction occurs.

Back 107

true

Front 108

T or F
Do tendons have motor innervation?

Back 108

False. They have no motor function so they do not receive any efferent innervation

Front 109

What is a bursa?

Back 109

sac of connective tissue that is filled with synovial fluid. Facilitates movement by minimizing friction.

Front 110

What is Fascia?

Back 110

The musculature of the body is invested and seperated from the skin and from each other by sheets of connective tissue known as Fascia.

Front 111

What is superficial fascia?

Back 111

lies deep to the skin and contains blood vessels, lymphatics, nerves, varying amounts of adipose tissue.

Front 112

Deep fascia is divided into 3 layers. What are they?

Back 112

an investing layer of muscle called epimysium, intermuscular septum, and a retinaculum.

Front 113

What is the intermuscular septum

Back 113

where epimysium of one muscle meets the epimysium of another muscle.

Front 114

What is the retinaculum.

Back 114

thickened band of deep fascia which is found at joints and functions to bind down tendons and nerves that cross the joint.

Front 115

what is the parallel or strap arrangement

Back 115

muscles where the fibers run approximately the whole length of muscle, parallel to the long axis.

Front 116

what is the pennate muscle arrangement

Back 116

muscles whos fibers run oblique to the long axis.

Front 117

what is the unipennate or bipennate muscle arrangement

Back 117

where the tendon lies along one side of the muscle and the muscle fibers pass obliquely to it, or when the tendon lies in the center of the muscle fibers.

Front 118

Endurance type 1 fibers are typically in what arrangement? what about power type 2 fibers?

Back 118

Pennate for type 1, parallel for type 2

Front 119

What is a prime mover or agonist?

Back 119

muscle or muscles which are most responsible for carrying out a particular action.

Front 120

What is a synergist?

Back 120

assist the prime mover in performing its action. Stabilizes a joint which the mover passes over but does not move. Keeps the bone or origin of the mover steady. This is sometimes called a fixator.

Front 121

What is an antagonist?

Back 121

muscle that produces the opposite effect from the agonist.

Front 122

What is reciprocal innervation?

Back 122

when a muscle contracts(agonist) its antagonist automatically relaxes.

Front 123

What is Co-reflex phenomenon?

Back 123

In a newborn (especially a premature infant) both agonist and antagonist contract at the same time. Also seen in individuals with sensory nerve damage.

Front 124

No account of the role of muscles would be complete without the considering the influence of what?

Back 124

gravity

Front 125

What is muscle atrophy

Back 125

when the muscle becomes smaller and weaker.

Front 126

what pathology of the CNS can cause muscle atrophy?

Back 126

Amyotropic lateral sclerosis

Front 127

What pathology of the peripheral nervous system can cause muscle atrophy?

Back 127

Guillain Baire syndrom

Front 128

What pathology of the individual muscle fibers can cause muscle atrophy?

Back 128

Muscular dystrophies

Front 129

Can prolonged immobilization of the joints or chronic joint disorder cause muscle atrophy?

Back 129

Yes

Front 130

What is Ischemic Necrosis?

Back 130

Term used to designate any diminishing of the arterial supply to a muscle which will result in the loss of muscle fibers within a few hours.

Front 131

What is muscle contracture?

Back 131

If a muscle remains shortened(contracted) for a prolonged period of time it will develop a persistent and sometimes permanent shortening.

Front 132

What diseases can cause contracture?

Back 132

Polio, muscular dystrophy, cerebral palsy

Front 133

Muscles can regenerate. What cells facilitate this and how do they do it?

Back 133

undifferentiated satellite cells are found between the endomysium and the muscle fiber. They can differentiate and help with the repair and regeneration of muscles.

Front 134

How does muscular dystrophy impact satellite cells?

Back 134

it prevents them from replacing injured muscle fibers.

Front 135

Reasons why muscle tissue degenerates over time

Back 135

muscle fibers have fewer myofibrils
sarcomeres are fewer and disorganized
Fewer mitochondria, less ATP
Reduced blood supply
fewer motor neurons in CNS

Front 136

What is the upper extremity?

Back 136

a multi jointed lever that is freely movable on the trunk at the shoulder joint. It is comprised of the shoulder girdle and the free limb.

Front 137

What two bones does the shoulder girdle consist of?

Back 137

Scapula, clavicle

Front 138

What does the free limb consist of?

Back 138

1. arm or brachium between the shoulder joint and elbow joint.
2. forearm or antebrachium between elbow and wrist joint.
3. hand or manus which is distal to the wrist joint.

Front 139

What does the word clavicle mean?

Back 139

little key

Front 140

the clavicle forms the boundary between two well marked depressions. What are they?

Back 140

supraclavicular fossa and infraclavicular fossa.

Front 141

How is the clavicle different in men and women?

Back 141

for females the bone is shorter, thinner, less curved and smoother.

Front 142

Is the clavicle present in all vertebrae(subphylum in which man is classified)?

Back 142

No, it is only present in those vertebrae that use the hand for manual dexterity.

Front 143

Main functions of the clavicle:
1.

Back 143

transmit forces from upper extremity to axial skeleton

Front 144

Main functions of the clavicle:
2.

Back 144

act as a brace, holding the arm free from the trunk.

Front 145

What is ossification?

Back 145

process by which embryonic connetive tissue is replaced by bone cells.

Front 146

What is intramembranous ossification?

Back 146

ossification in which bone cells replace a primitive type of connective tissue known as mesenchyme. Occurs in the axial skeleton.

Front 147

What is endochondral ossification?

Back 147

ossification in which bone cells replace a very well developed type of connective tissue known as hyaline cartilage. Occurs in the appendicular skeleton.

Front 148

How is the clavicle unique as far as ossification is concerned?

Back 148

it is the first bone to undergo ossification in the fetus around teh 5th or 6th week. It undergoes intramembranous oss at the center of the bone first, then endochondral at around 17 years of age.

Front 149

When does the clavicle finish growing?

Back 149

at around age 25

Front 150

T or F
the clavicle one of the most frequently fractured bones in the body?

Back 150

True

Front 151

Where do fractures occur on the clavicle?

Back 151

normally in the first lateral third of the bone near the area of the first curvature, which is the weakest part of the bone.

Front 152

What is cleidocranial dysostosis?

Back 152

hereditary condition in which ossification is defective. The clavicle is missing or abnormally formed. Bilateral in most patients.

Front 153

Where is the scapula found?

Back 153

between the second and seventh ribs and the first and seventh thoracic vertebrae.

Front 154

What other bones does the scapula articulate with?

Back 154

Head of the humerus to form the shoulder joint and with the acromial end of the clavicle to form the acromioclavicular joint.

Front 155

How many ossification centers does the scapula have?

Back 155

7 ossification centers. 1 primary and 6 secondary.

Front 156

When is the scapula completely ossified?

Back 156

between 15 and 18 years of age

Front 157

describe the development of the clavicle during the fetal stages.

Back 157

primary center of bone develops during the 8th week. The 6 secondary ossification(2 for acromion, 2 for coracoid, 1 for the medial border and 1 for inferior angle) will develop from right after birth to the teen years.

Front 158

What is the clinical arm?

Back 158

area from the acromion process of the scapula to the lateral epicondyle of the humerus. Differs from the anatomical arm which is the area between the shoulder and elbow joint.

Front 159

What is the most commonly fractured part of the scapula?

Back 159

the acromion process

Front 160

What is Sprengel's deformity?

Back 160

an undescended scapula brought about by attachment to cervicle vertebrae by either bone, cartilage or fibrous attachment.

Front 161

What is Os Acromidae?

Back 161

failure of the acromion process to fuse with the rest of the bone.

Front 162

What are mammary glands?

Back 162

Toys. Just kidding. They are paired cutaneous sweat glands which are found in both sexes bu are rudimentary and functionless in males.

Front 163

Primary functions of the mammary gland:
1.

Back 163

Provides nourishment to the infant.

Front 164

Primary functions of the mammary gland:
2.

Back 164

Provides protection against certain types of diseases in infants. (immune benefits)

Front 165

Where are mammary glands located?

Back 165

they are situated on the ventral aspect of the thoracic wall where they lie embedded in superficial fascia.

Front 166

What is the axillary tail?

Back 166

portion of the mammary gland that projects into the axillary region.

Front 167

What is the nipple?

Back 167

papillae like projection which contain the opening of the lactiferous ducts.

Front 168

how many lactiferous ducts are there per lobe?

Back 168

a single duct per lobe.

Front 169

What is the lactiferous sinus?

Back 169

Where the lactiferous ducts expand and enter the nipple.

Front 170

Is the mothers milk sucked by the infant?

Back 170

no, compression forces cause the accumulated droplets to be sucked into the infants mouth.

Front 171

Each nipple is composed of:
1.

Back 171

smooth muscle fibers, the contraction of which produce erection of the nipple.

Front 172

Each nipple is composed of:
2.

Back 172

tactile sense organs, which render the nipples sensitive to mechanical stimulation.

Front 173

Each nipple is composed of:
3.

Back 173

numerous pigment cells, which impart color

Front 174

What is the areola?

Back 174

This is the circular part of the skin surrounding the nipple.

Front 175

how does the color of the areola differ pre and post pregnancy?

Back 175

the areola is usually rosy-pink in a woman who has never been pregnant, but during pregnancy it becomes brownish or even black in color.

Front 176

What do the sebaceous glands do in the areola?

Back 176

they secrete an oil substance that provides a protective lubricant for the areola and nipple during lactation.

Front 177

How many lobes are found in the mammary gland?

Back 177

20 lobes.

Front 178

what is the suspensory ligament?

Back 178

a fibrous septa of connective tissue that seperates each lobe from the others.

Front 179

How are lobes subdivided?

Back 179

into lobules which consist of alveoli

Front 180

What are alveoli? What are they lined with?

Back 180

secretory portion of the mammary gland and are lined with secretory cells.

Front 181

prior to pregnancy, the alveolar tissue is functionless and said to be in what kind of state?

Back 181

resting or inactive state

Front 182

What changes occur in the mammary gland at puberty?

Back 182

increase in size rapidly

Front 183

What changes occur in the mammary gland at each menstrual period?

Back 183

tend to enlarge slightly and to exhibit tenderness

Front 184

What changes occur in the mammary gland at each pregnancy?

Back 184

become enlarged and functional, attaining their development during lactation. After lactation they return to normal size.

Front 185

What are the hormones that influence the development of the mammary glands?

Back 185

Estrogen, progesterone, prolactin, oxytocin

Front 186

what secretes estrogen and how does it influence the development of the mammary gland?

Back 186

secreted by ovary and placenta and it promotes the growth of the duct system of the mamary gland.

Front 187

what secretes progestrone and how does it influence the development of the mammary gland?

Back 187

secreted by the ovary and placenta, promotes the growth of secretory cells.

Front 188

what secretes prolactin and how does it influence the development of the mammary gland?

Back 188

secteted by the anterior pituitary and promotes the production of milk after birth.

Front 189

what secretes oxytocin and how does it influence the development of the mammary gland?

Back 189

secreted by the posterior pituitary and promotes the release of milk.

Front 190

True or False
During pregnancy estrogen and progesterone suppress the development of milk.

Back 190

True
They promote the development of alveoli but suppress milk production. After birth there is a decrease in estrogen and progesterone.

Front 191

What is the colostrum?

Back 191

first secretions from the functional mammary gland. It is creamy white to yellowish fluid.

Front 192

When is colostrum secreted?

Back 192

during the last few weeks of pregnancy and continues for about the first week of nursing.

Front 193

What is colostrum rich in? It functions to do what?

Back 193

immunoglobulins and lactoferrin. It functions to impart immune protection and a growth factor affecting the infant's intestinal tract.

Front 194

What is transitional milk

Back 194

present from day 6 to 15, it has lower immunoglobin compared to colostrum bu higher amounts of lactose and fat.

Front 195

when is mature milk present and what is it composed of?

Back 195

present from day 15 to weaning and it is composed of 88% water, 7% lactose, 4% fat and 1% protein.

Front 196

What is an inverted nipple?

Back 196

aka retracted nipple (may be congenital or a recent event)If it is a recent event the cause may be an underlying carcinoma pulling on the lactiferous duct.

Front 197

What are supernumerary nipples?

Back 197

extra nipple which may or may not be associated with mammary gland tissue.

Front 198

Give the 4 causes of breast cancer

Back 198

family history in mother or sister
never having had a child or having first child after age 35
exposure to ionizing radiation
excessive intake of fat and red meat

Front 199

Each month after the menstrual period, the mammary glands should be checked for three things. What are they?

Back 199

lumps, dimpling of the skin, nipple retraction and discharge

Front 200

What is chronic cystic mastitis(fibrocystic disease)

Back 200

benign tumor commonly found after the menstrual cycle and during periods of hormonal irregularity. Difficult to distinguish from benign cyst and cancerous tumor.

Front 201

What is galactorrhea or nipple discharge.

Back 201

secretions not associated with pregnancy. Not due to any underlying pathology. May be due to medication, hormonal abnormalities and trauma to chest wall.

Front 202

Can medication be transmitted in breast milk?

Back 202

Yes, any medication the mother takes can be transmitted to the child.

Front 203

Can breast feeding be counted upon as a reliable method of contraceptive?

Back 203

No because the levels of prolactin are unpredictable.

Front 204

What is gynecomastia

Back 204

enlargement of the breast in a male. Common at puberty. Uncommon after puberty.

Front 205

How many ossification centers does the humerus have?

Back 205

8 ossification centers. 1 primary and 7 secondary.

Front 206

Where are the ossification centers of the humerus?

Back 206

primary center for the shaft and secondary centers for the head, greater tubercle, lesser tubercle, medial epicondyel, lateral epicondyle, trochlea and capitulum.

Front 207

When is the humerus completely ossified?

Back 207

age 18-20 in females and 20-22 in males.

Front 208

What are the main areas of fracture on the humerus?

Back 208

anatomical neck, surgical neck, greater tubercle, lesser tubercle, shaft and distal end.

Front 209

Several nerves and blood vessels are vulnerable to damage with fractures of the humerus. What are they?

Back 209

Surgical neck: axillary nerve, humeral circumflex vessels
shaft: radial nerve
distal end: median nerve, ulnar nerve, brachial blood vessels.

Front 210

List the four movements of the scapula

Back 210

elevation, depression, abduction/protraction, adduction/retraction.

Front 211

Explain scapula elevation

Back 211

upward movement of the scapula while the scapula remains approximately parallel to the vertebral column.

Front 212

Explain scapula depression

Back 212

the return to normal from a position of elevation

Front 213

explain scapula abduction/protraction

Back 213

a lateral movement of the scapula away from the vertebral column with the medial border remaining parallel to the column.

Front 214

explain scapula adduction/retraction

Back 214

a medial movement of the scapula toward the vertebral column.

Front 215

Movements of the humerus

Back 215

flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, medial rotation, lateral rotation, circumduction.

Front 216

explain humerus flexion

Back 216

forward movement of the humerus

Front 217

explain humerus extension

Back 217

backward movement of the humerus (reverse of flexion)

Front 218

explain humerus abduction

Back 218

movement of the humerus laterally away from the body

Front 219

explain humerus adduction

Back 219

movement of bringing the humerus back toward the body(medial movement)

Front 220

explain humerus medial rotation

Back 220

humerus is turned inward toward body

Front 221

explain humerus lateral rotation

Back 221

humerus is turned outward away from body

Front 222

explain humerus circumduction

Back 222

rotational movement around a joint

Front 223

Give the 3 origins of the pectoralis major.

Back 223

clavicle(clavicular portion)
sternum and upper ribs(sternocostal portion)
external oblique muscle(abdominal portion)

Front 224

Where does the pectoralis major insert?

Back 224

lateral aspect of the inter tubercular groove.

Front 225

What movements are associated with the humerus and the pectoralis major?

Back 225

adduction and medial rotation of the humerus

Front 226

How does the pectoralis major help with inspiration?

Back 226

by elevating the rib cage when the humerus is stabilized or fixed. Used by individuals with respiratory difficulty or an exhausted athlete.

Front 227

What does the clavicular portion of the pectoralis major do?

Back 227

flexes the humerus at the shoulder joint.

Front 228

What does the sternocostal portion of the pectoralis major do?

Back 228

extends humerus at the shoulder joint.

Front 229

What is the nerve supply of the pectoralis major?

Back 229

Medial (C8-T1) and lateral pectoral (C5-C7) nerves.

Front 230

Explain rupture of the pectoralis major.

Back 230

a rare injury occurs when excessive stress causes a tearing of the tendon or possibly an avulsion fracture at its insertion. Athletes describe hearing a pop or a snap.

Front 231

Explain the absence of pectoralis major muscle.

Back 231

not common, but when it occurs no disability results. However, the anterior fold of the axilla is missing.

Front 232

What is poland's syndrome?

Back 232

a condition in which both the pectoralis major and minor muscles are missing and there is atrophy of the mammary glands and the absence of several ribs.

Front 233

What is the origin of the pectoralis minor

Back 233

upper ribs

Front 234

What is the insertion of the pectoralis minor

Back 234

coracoid process/scapula

Front 235

How does the pectoralis minor act on the clavicle?

Back 235

pulls the clavicle medially thus stabilizing the sternoclavicular joint (especially when hanging by your head.)

Front 236

The pectoralis minor is a protective cusion between what?

Back 236

fractured clavicle and underlying vessels.

Front 237

What is the nerve supply of the pectoralis minor?

Back 237

nerve to the subclavius (C5-C6)

Front 238

What is the axilla?

Back 238

space between the arm and chest wall which is in the shape of a truncated pyramid.

Front 239

What is the apex of the axilla?

Back 239

upper end. It is a triangular space bounded by the clavicle, scapula and the first rib.

Front 240

What is the base of the axilla?

Back 240

lower end. it is made up of skin and fascia.

Front 241

What are the folds of the axilla

Back 241

anderior and posterior folds.

Front 242

The anterior wall of the axilla is formed by?

Back 242

the pectoralis major

Front 243

the posterior wall of the axilla is formed by?

Back 243

the scapula and the subscapularis muscles, tendon of the latissimus dorsi, and the teres major.

Front 244

What is the medial wall of the axilla formed by?

Back 244

serratus anterior and the upper ribs.

Front 245

what is the lateral wall of the axilla formed by?

Back 245

medial aspect of the arm(bicipital furrow)

Front 246

list the contents of the brachial plexus of which there are 5.

Back 246

brachial plexus, axillary artery and vein, axillary lymph nodes and adipose tissue.

Front 247

What is the axillary sheath?

Back 247

the nerves and blood vessels found in the axilla are closely grouped together and enclosed in a layer of fascia known as the axillary sheath.

Front 248

The dorsal scapular nerve provides motor supply to what two muscles?

Back 248

Rhomboid and levator scapula

Front 249

The long thoracic nerve provides motor supply to what muscle?

Back 249

serratus anterior

Front 250

The suprascapular nerve provides motor supply to what two muscles?

Back 250

supraspinatus and infraspinatus

Front 251

The suprascapular nerve provides articular supply to what joint?

Back 251

the shoulder joint

Front 252

the nerve to the subclavius provides motor supply to what muscle?

Back 252

subclavius muscle

Front 253

The lateral pectoral nerve provides motor supply for what muscle?

Back 253

pectoralis major

Front 254

The musculocutaneous nerve passes through what muscle?

Back 254

the coracobrachialis. It then runs between the biceps brachii and brachialis muscle.

Front 255

The musculocutaneous nerve provides motor supply to what three muscles?

Back 255

coracobrachialis, biceps brachii, and brachialis

Front 256

The musculocutaneous nerve provides articular supply to what joint?

Back 256

elbow joint

Front 257

the musculocutaneous nerve provides cutaneous supply to what aspect?

Back 257

lateral aspect of the forearm

Front 258

The medial pectoral nerve provides motor supply to what two muscles?

Back 258

pectoralis major and pectoralis minor

Front 259

The medial brachial cutaneous nerve provides cutaneous supply to what aspect?

Back 259

medial aspect of the arm

Front 260

the medial antebrachial cutaneous nerve provides cutaneous supply to what aspect?

Back 260

medial aspect of the forearm.

Front 261

The ulnar nerve provides motor supply for what 3 muscles?

Back 261

flexor carpi ulnaris and the medial half of the flexor digitorum profundus and muscles associated with the 5th digit known collectively as the hypothenar muscles.

Front 262

The ulnar nerve provides articular supply for what 2 joints?

Back 262

elbow and wrist joints.

Front 263

The ulnar nerve provides cutaneous supply to what aspects?

Back 263

medial aspect of the palm and dorsum of the hand. skin of digit five and part of digit four.

Front 264

the median nerve provides motor supply to what 8 muscles?

Back 264

pronator teres, flexor carpi radialis, palmaris longus, flexor digitorum superficialis, flexor pollicis longus, pronator quadratus, and the lateral half of the flexor digitorum profundus.

Front 265

The median nerve provides articular supply to what 2 joints?

Back 265

elbow and wrist joint

Front 266

The median nerve provides cutaneous supply to what aspects?

Back 266

lateral 3/4 of the palmar surface of the hand and the skin of the first 3 1/2 digits.

Front 267

the upper subscapular nerve provides motor supply to what muscle?

Back 267

subscapularis

Front 268

The lower subscapular nerve provides motor supply to what two muscles?

Back 268

subscapularis and teres major

Front 269

The thoracodorsal nerve provides motor supply to what muscle?

Back 269

the latissimus dorsi

Front 270

The axillary nerve provides motor supply to what two muscles?

Back 270

deltoid and teres minor

Front 271

The axillary nerve provides articular supply to what joint?

Back 271

shoulder joint

Front 272

the axillary nerve provides cutaneous supply to what aspects?

Back 272

a specific articular branch of the nerve which is known as the lateral brachial cutaneous supplies skin on the lateral aspect of the arm.

Front 273

The radial nerve provides motor supply to what muscles?

Back 273

triceps brachii and all the posterior forearm muscles.

Front 274

The radial nerve provides articular supply to what two joints?

Back 274

the elbow and the wrist joints

Front 275

What is a dermatome?

Back 275

the area of the skin supplied by a sensory root of a spinal nerve

Front 276

dermatome of C4 covers what area?

Back 276

skin over the tip of the shoulder

Front 277

dermatome of C5 covers what area?

Back 277

lateral(radial) side of the arm

Front 278

dermatome of C6 covers what area?

Back 278

radial side of the forearm; digit one and two

Front 279

dermatome of C7 covers what area?

Back 279

skn of the hand; digit three

Front 280

dermatome for C8 covers what area?

Back 280

medial (ulnar side of the forearm; digits four and five)

Front 281

dermatome of T1 covers what area?

Back 281

ulnar side of the arm

Front 282

dermatome for T2 covers what area?

Back 282

skin of the axilla

Front 283

What is a prefixed brachial plexus?

Back 283

plexus in which C4 is the superior spinal nerve root forming the plexus. C8 would be the most inferior nerve root.

Front 284

What is a postfixed brachial plexus?

Back 284

plexus in which C6 is the superior spinal nerve root forming the plexus. in this type of plexus, T2 would be the most inferior spinal root.

Front 285

What is paralysis

Back 285

complete loss of muscular movement

Front 286

what is paresis

Back 286

movement can be performed but is weak

Front 287

what is anesthesia

Back 287

partial or complete loss of sensation with or without loss of consciousness

Front 288

what is paresthesia

Back 288

loss of cutaneous sensation

Front 289

Where is the dorsal scapular nerve found?

Back 289

descends down the back dep to the rhomboids and levator scapula muscle.

Front 290

Where is the suprascapular nerve found?

Back 290

passes laterally across the cervical region deep to the trapezius and deep to the muscles associated with the posterior aspect of the scapula. Passes from the supraspinous fossa to the infraspinous fossa via an opening in the spine of the scapula.

Front 291

where is the nerve to the subclavius found?

Back 291

descends posteriorly to the clavicle and often gives a branch to the phrenic nerve which is known as the accessory phrenic nerve.

Front 292

Where is the lateral pectoral nerve found?

Back 292

first nerve to come off of the lateral cord and often communicates directly with the medial pectoral nerve.

Front 293

Where is the musculocutaneous nerve found?

Back 293

terminal branch of the lateral cord. As it leaves the axilla it always passes through the belly of the coracobrachialis muscle and then runs between the biceps brachii and brachialis muscle.

Front 294

Where is the medial pectoral nerve found?

Back 294

the first small nerve coming off the medial cord.

Front 295

Where is the ulnar nerve found?

Back 295

descends between the axillary artery and vein down the medial aspect of the arm. As the nerve descends down the medial aspect of the forearm, it is deep to the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle. The nerve will cross the wrist joint and enter the palm.

Front 296

Where is the median nerve found?

Back 296

formed from the union of more than one cord. Nerve descends along medial aspect of the arm, lateral to the ulnar nerve. Enters the forearm by passing between the two bellies of the pronator teres muscle and then descends down the middle of the forearm.

Front 297

Where is the thoracodorsal nerve found?

Back 297

runs down the lateral aspect of the thoracic cage, just lateral to the long thoracic nerve.

Front 298

Where is the axillary nerve found?

Back 298

smaller and more lateral of the terminal branches of the posterior cord. Associated with the surgical neck of the humerus which it encircles.

Front 299

Where is the radial nerve found?

Back 299

descends from the axilla to the middle of the arm where it comes in contact with the humerus at the spiral groove. it then descends into the forearm where it divides into a superficial and deep branches.

Front 300

What is Erb Duchenne Palsy

Back 300

Most common type of injury to the plexus. Results from excessive increase in angle between neck and shoulder. Injures C5 and C6.

Front 301

How are injures to the upper root caused(Erb Duchenne Palsy)
1.

Back 301

difficult birth process. excessive stretching of the neck of the infant. Seen a few hours after birth.

Front 302

How are injures to the upper root caused(Erb Duchenne Palsy)
2.

Back 302

following a fall or a blow on the shoulder. Shoulder hits something but the head continues to move.

Front 303

How are injures to the upper root caused(Erb Duchenne Palsy)
3.

Back 303

Heavy weight falls on your shoulder and produces a traction injury. Struck by a falling branch.

Front 304

What nerves could be involved if C5 and C6 are injured?

Back 304

Suprascapular, nerve to the subclavius, musculocutaneous, axillary, median, radial, dorsal scapula, long thoracic, lateral pectoral and subscapular.

Front 305

What complications will injuries to the upper root cause?

Back 305

disabled shoulder movement, but a reasonably functional nhand. Loss of sensation in the area of the C5 and C6 dermatomes.

Front 306

What nerves are impacted by injury to the lower roots (Klumpke's Palsy)?

Back 306

Occurs from injury to C8 and or T1

Front 307

What are causes of injury to the lower roots (Klumpke's Palsy)?
1.

Back 307

individual falling from a height and clutching an object to save themselves.

Front 308

What are causes of injury to the lower roots (Klumpke's Palsy)?
2.

Back 308

forceful pull of the shoulder of an infant during the birth process.

Front 309

What nerves may be involved in an injury to the lower roots (Klumpke's Palsy)?

Back 309

ulnar, median, radial, medial brachian and antebrachial cutaneous, medial pectoral, and thoracodorsal.

Front 310

What problems will people have after injuries to the lower roots of the brachial plexus?

Back 310

Problems with movements at the wrist joint and digits and thus greatly disabled use of the hand.

Front 311

What are the cervical ribs?

Back 311

a longer than normal transverse process of a cervical vertebrae may cause problems with the spinal nerve roots of the plexus.

Front 312

What can cause compression of the cords of the brachial plexus?

Back 312

prolonged hyperabduction of the arm during certain manual tasks like painting a ceiling.

Front 313

What is thoracic outlet syndrome?

Back 313

condition where there is both compression of the cords of the brachial plexus and the axillary artery.

Front 314

What symptoms are shown with thoracic outlet syndrom?

Back 314

both neurological and vascular. Nerological symptoms include pain and paresthesia while vascular sypmtoms are usually decreased skin temperature and fatigue of the limb.

Front 315

How does the axillary artery get its name?

Back 315

it is a direct continuation of the subclavian artery. The blood vessel changes its name to the axillary artery when the vessel passes under the clavicle and enters the axilla. It becomes the brachial artery about an inch or so below the level of the surgical neck of the humerus.

Front 316

What are the six specific branches of the axillary artery?

Back 316

superior thoracic, thoacoacromial, lateral thoracic, subscapular, anterior and posterior humeral circumflex.

Front 317

what does the superior thoracic artery supply

Back 317

first branch off the axillary. It supplies the pectoralis major, subclavius muscle and part of the superior thoracic wall.

Front 318

What does the thoracoacromial artery supply?

Back 318

short trunk which curls around the upper medial border of the pectoralis minor and divides into 4 branches (acromial, pectoral, clavicular, and deltoid)

Front 319

What does the lateral thoracic artery supply?

Back 319

appears along the lateral border of the pectoralis minor. It supplies the serratus anterior, large portion of the mammary gland, intercostal muscles and part of the pec major.

Front 320

what does the subscapular artery supply?

Back 320

largest branch of the artery and found parallel and lateral to the lateral thoracic artery. It divides into two branches, the thoracodorsal and circumflex scapular.

Front 321

what does the thoracodorsal artery supply?

Back 321

latissimus dorsi and subscapularis

Front 322

what does the circumflex scapular artery supply?

Back 322

muscles associated with the dorsum of the scapula.

Front 323

what do the anterior and posterior humeral circumflex arteries supply?

Back 323

form a ring or circle around the surgical neck of the humerus. They supply the deltoid muscle, teres major and minor, shoulder joint, and proximal part of the humerus.

Front 324

True or False
all arteries have accompanying feins, thus there is a axillary vein which becomes the subclavian vein etc

Back 324

true

Front 325

How can an aneurysm affect the brachial plexus?

Back 325

it can compress the trunks and or cords causing pain and loss of sensation in the areas supplied by the nerves. Seen in baseball pitchers due to forceful and rapid arm movement.

Front 326

What is a lymph vessel?

Back 326

vessel of the lymphatic system that contains fluid known as lymph.

Front 327

True or False
lymph fluid and interstitial fluid are essentially the same thing?

Back 327

true.

Front 328

What is a lymph node?

Back 328

function to filter lymph fluid and produce lymphocytes to destroy bacteria, viruses, and cancer cells.

Front 329

What are the axillary lymph nodes?

Back 329

embedded in the fascia and adipose tissue of the axilla and are located around the brachial plexus and axillary vein. Number around 20-30.