Gre Research Methods

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Wilhelm Wundt

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Founded the first psychological laboratory in 1879 and brought together work in philosophy, physiology, and psychophysics to create a new field.

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Hermann Ebbinghaus

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Demonstrated that higher mental processes could be studied using experimental methodology.

Studied memory using nonsense syllables.

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Oswald Kulpe

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Believed in imageless thought (in strong disagreement with Wundt).

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James McKeen Cattell

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Studied under Wundt.

Introduced mental testing in the United States.

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Binet-Simon test

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An intelligence test that measured mental age.

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Mental age

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The age level at which a person functions intellectually, regardless of chronological age.

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William Stern

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Developed the intelligence quotient (IQ).

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IQ

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Intelligence quotient; an equation that compares mental age with chronological age.

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Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test

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The Binet-Simon test as revised for use in the United States.

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Hypothesis

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A tentative and testable explanation of the relationship between two or more variables; the first step in research design.

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Variable

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A characteristic or property that varies in amount or kind and can be measured.

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Operational definition

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The way in which a researcher plans to define the variables in an experiment so that they are measurable.

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Independent variable

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The variable whose effect is being studied and is manipulated by a research design.

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Dependent variable

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The response that is expected to vary with differences in the independent variable.

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What are the 3 types of research?

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1. True experiments

2. Quasi-experiments

3. Correlational studies

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Correlational study

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A study in which the independent variable is measured but not manipulated.

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Random assignment

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A condition in which participants in a study are assigned to a condition at random (out of the control of the researcher).

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True experiment

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A study in which random assignment and manipulation of the independent variable are both present.

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Quasi-experimental design

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A study in which random assignment is not used, therefore, insufficient control over the variables does not allow for definitive statements or causal factors to be made.

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Naturalistic observation

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Also known as field study; observing how variables behave without any intervention.

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Sample

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A subset of a population for which a researcher hopes to generalize the results of a study.

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Random selection

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A technique in which each member of a population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample.

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Stratified random sampling

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A technique in which each subgroup of the population is randomly sampled in proportion to size.

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Between-subjects design

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A study in which each subject is exposed to only one level of each independent variable.

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Matched-subjects design

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A study in which subjects are matched based on the variable that the researcher wants to control.

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Within-subjects design

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A study in which the same group of subjects is exposed to more than one condition allowing researchers to separate effects of individual differences

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Counterbalancing

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A method of controlling the potential effects of unintended independent effects by assigning all subjects with all test levels but in different order.

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Confounding variable

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An unintended independent variable that interferes with inferring causality.

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Control group design

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A study in which both groups are treated equally in all respects except that the control group does not receive the treatment and the experimental group does.

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Nonequivalent group design

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A study in which the control group is not necessarily similar to the experimental group since the researcher does not use random assignment; often used in educational research because students cannot be randomly assigned to classrooms.

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Experimenter bias

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The fact that the experimenter might inadvertently treat groups of subjects differently or interpret the results based on his or her expectations.

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Double-blinding

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A research condition in which neither the researcher or the subjects know which conditions will be assigned to which subjects.

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Single-blinding

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A research condition in which the researcher knows which conditions are assigned to which subjects.

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Demand characteristics

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Any cues that suggest to subjects what the researcher expects from them.

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Placebo effect

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A therapeutic response resulting from an inactive substance, such as a sugar pill.

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Hawthorne effect

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A tendency of people to behave differently if they know they are being observed.

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External validity

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How generalizable the results of an experiment are.

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What are two types of statistics in psychology?

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1. Descriptive statistics

2. Inferential statistics

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Descriptive statistics

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The organizing, describing, quantifying, and summarizing a collection of actual observations.

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Inferential statistics

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Mathematical study that allows for the generalization of information beyond actual observations.

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Frequency distribution

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A graphic representation of how often each value occurs in a data set.

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What are three measures of central tendency and what do they provide?

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1. Mode

2. Median

3. Mean

These measures provide estimates of the average score.

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Mode

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The value of the most frequent observation in a data set.

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Bimodal

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The description of a data set that has two values that are tied for being the most frequently occurring.

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If all of the values in a distribution occur with equal frequency, what is true of the mode?

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There is no mode.

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Median

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The middle value when observations are ordered from least to most or vice versa (the mathematical middle point).

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Mean

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The arithmetic average.

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Outliers

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Extreme scores.

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Variability

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Also known as dispersion; A description of the distribution of scores.

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What are the three measures of variability?

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1. Range

2. Standard deviation

3. Variance

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Range

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In a data set, the smallest number in the distribution subtracted from the largest number.

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Standard deviation

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A measure of the typical distance of scores from the mean.

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Variance

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The square of the standard deviation; a description of how much each score varies from the mean.

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There can be no ____________ values in the measure of distance, so standard deviation and variance must be either ____________ or ___________

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1. negative

2. 0

3. a positive number

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Identify the standard deviation values of this normal distribution.

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S= 34%

2S= 14%

3S= 2%

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Percentile

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The percentage of scores that fall at or below a particular score.

To calculate the percentile represented by a z-score, add up all of the percentages to the left of the z-score.

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Z-score

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A score that represents how many standard deviations above or below the mean a score is.

z-score= item score - mean of distribution

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standard deviation

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Where do positive and negative z-scores fall in a distribution?

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Negative z-scores are below the mean and positive z-scores are above the mean.

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T-scores

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A test score that is converted to a normal distribution that has a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10.

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Correlation coefficient

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Measures to what extent, if any, two variables are related.

These values range from -1.00 to +1.00.

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Positive correlation

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A change in value of one of the variables tends to be associated with a change in the same direction of the value of the other variable.

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Negative correlation

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A change in the value of one of the variables tends to be associated with a change in the opposite direction of the other variable.

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Correlation does not imply ________________.

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Causation

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A perfect correlation would have a value of ___________.

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+1 or -1

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Scatterplot

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The graphic representation of correlational data.

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Best-fitting straight line

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A line that passes through a scatterplot to indicate the direction of the correlation.

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Factor analysis

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A statistical technique using correlation coefficients to reduce a large number of variables to a few factors.

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Factor

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A cluster of variables highly correlated with each other is assumed to be measuring the same thing.

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Significance test

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A tool researchers use to draw conclusions about populations based upon research conducted on samples; can tell researchers the probability that observed differences are due to chance.

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Alternative hypothesis

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Also known as a research hypothesis; the hypothesis put forth in a research study.

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Null hypotheses

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Other explanations for phenomena observed during a research study. If this is supported, then the phenomena are due to chance.

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Statistically significant

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If an alpha level is less than or equal to 5, this is determined and the null hypothesis is rejected.

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Alpha level

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The criterion of significance.

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Beta

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The probability of making a Type II error.

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T-test

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Used to compare the means of two groups.

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ANOVA

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Used to compare the means of more than two groups and to determine if there is any interaction between two or more independent variables.

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Chi-square test

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Tests the equality of two frequencies or proportions.

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F ratio

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= Between-group variance estimate

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Within-group variance estimate

The equation used to calculate ANOVAs.

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What does an F ratio nearing zero indicate?

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That the mean scores are about the same for each group.

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An interaction between two independent variables occurs whenever the effects of one independent variable are ______________ for all levels of the second independent variable.

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not consistent.

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Chi-squared tests are significance tests that work with ________________ rather than ________________ data.

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categorical, numerical

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Nominal

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Categorized measurement is named this way because it involves classifying or naming.

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Factorial design ANOVAs

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Each level of a given independent variable occurs with each level of the other independent variables.

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Meta-analysis

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A statistical procedure that can be used to make conclusions on the basis of data from different studies.

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Norm-referenced testing

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Assessing an individual's performance in terms of how that individual performs in comparison to others.

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Test norms are derived from _____________ samples.

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standardized.

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Domain-referenced testing

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Also called criterion-referenced testing; concerned with the question of what the test taker knows about a specified content domain.

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Reliability

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The consistency with which a test measures its subject.

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Standard error of measurement (SEM)

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An index of how much, on average, we expect a person's observed score to vary from the score the person is capable of receiving based on actual ability.

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What are the 3 basic methods used to establish the reliability of a test?

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1. Test-retest

2. Alternate-form

3. Split-half

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Test-retest method

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A method in which the same test is administered to the same group of people twice.

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What does the test-retest method measure?

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The inter-individual stability of test scores over time.

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Alternate form method

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A method in which the examinees are given two different forms of a test that are taken at two different times.

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Split-half reliability

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A method in which test-takers take only one test, but that one test is divided into two equal halves and scores on one half are correlated with the scores on the other half.

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What correlation coefficient indicates a high level of reliability?

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Greater than or equal to +.80.

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Validity

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The extent to which a test actually measures what it purports to measure.

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Content validity

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How well the content items of a test measure the particular skill or knowledge area that it is supposed to measure.

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Face validity

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Whether or not the test items appear to measure what they are supposed to measure.

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Criterion validity

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How well the test can predict an individual's performance on an established test of the same skill or knowledge area.

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Cross validation

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The testing of criterion validity of a test on a second sample after validity has been demonstrated using an initial sample.

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Construct validity

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How well a test measures the intended theoretical construct.

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Convergent validity

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If two constructs are related, then a person who scores high on a test of one construct should score high on a test of the other construct.

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Discriminant validity

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If two constructs are not related, then a person who scores high on a test of one construct should score low on a test of the other construct.

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What are the 4 basic types of measurement scales?

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1. Nominal

2. Ordinal

3. Interval

4. Ratio

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Ordinal scale

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Observations are ranked in terms of size or magnitude.

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Interval scale

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Actual numbers (but not ranks) are used for scoring.

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Ratio scaling

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Equal intervals are used in a measure wherein there is a true zero point that indicates the total absence of the quality being measured.

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What are the 2 types of ability tests?

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1. Aptitude tests

2. Achievement tests

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Aptitude tests

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Used to predict what one can accomplish through training.

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Achievement tests

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Attempt to assess what one knows or can do now.

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ratio IQ =

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mental age

_____________________ x 100

chronological age

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Deviation quotients

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Tells us how far away a person's IQ score is from the average score for the particular age group the subject is a member of.

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Wechsler tests

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Tests that have all items of a given type grouped into subtests and these items are arranged in order of increasing difficulty within each subset.

Include WPPSI-R, WISC-R, WAIS-R, and WAIS-III

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Personality inventory

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A self-rating device usually consisting of statements that a subject is asked to determine if they apply to him or her.

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Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

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A widely used personality inventory that measures ten clinical scales and can indicate whether a person is careless, faking answers, misrepresenting him or herself, or distorting responses.

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Empirical criterion-keying approach

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Approach used in the development of the MMPI in which questions that were tested were retained if they differentiated between patient and non-patient populations.

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California Psychological Inventory (CPI)

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A personality inventory based on the MMPI that is typically used on high school and college students and measures such personality traits as dominance, sociability, self-control, and femininity.

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Projective tests

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Tests in which ambiguous stimuli are provided and subjects are to interpret them. Results are scored subjectively.

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Rorschach test

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A projective test in which subjects are provided with inkblots in a specific order and given specific instructions to interpret them and the clinician interprets the results.

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Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

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A projective test in which a subject is provided with 20 simple pictures depicting scenes that have ambiguous meanings and asked to tell a story about what is happening. Scoring is not standardized.

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Blacky pictures

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A projective test devised for children in which 12 cartoonlike pictures feature a dog and the test taker is asked to tell stores about the pictures.

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Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank

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A projective technique using sentence completion to measure whatever is on the test taker's mind.

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Barnum effect

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The tendency of people to accept and approve of the interpretation of their personality that is given to them.

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Interest testing

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Used to assess an individual's interest in different lines of work.

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Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory

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An inventory organized like a personality inventory that measures a subject's like or dislike of particular interests.

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RIASEC

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Acronym for realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional.

These are the categories that are being measured in the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory.