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221 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
What is role theory?
People are aware of the social roles they are expected to fill, and many of their observable behaviors can be attributed to adopting these roles
What is Heider's Balance Theory?
- Three elements (Person, Other, and X) interact to produce balance
- If there is not balance, there will be stress and a tendency to reduce stress by achieving balance
- Imbalance occurs when someone agrees with someone he or she does not like, or disagrees with someone he or she does like
What is Festinger's Cognitive Dissonance Theory?
- Individuals feel conflict when attitudes are not in line with behavior, and thus may change attitudes
What are the 2 types of dissonant situations in Festinger's Cognitive Dissonance Theory?
- Free-Choice: Individual chooses between two attractive alternatives

- Forced Compliance: an individual is forced to behave in a way that is dissonant with his or her attitudes
What is spreading of alternatives?
The relative worth of two alternatives is spread apart (enhancing perceptions of one alternative and derogating perceptions of other alternative)
What is the minimal justification effect?
When external dissonance is minimal (i.e. there is less external pressure to act in ways that are inconsistent with attitudes), there will be more pressure to reduce dissonance by changing attitudes
What is Bem's self-perception theory?
People infer their attitudes from their behavior
What is the overjustification effect?
If you reward people for things they already like doing, they may like them less
What are the 3 components in Hovland's model of attitude change?
- The communicator
- The communication
- The situation
According to Hovland's model, how do characteristics of the communicator influence attitude change?
The more credible the communicator, the greater the effect on attitude change

Especially when arguing against own self-interest
What is the sleeper effect?
Over time, the persuasive impact of a high credibility source decreases while the persuasive impact of a low credibility source increases
What are two-sided messages?
Communications that contain arguments for and against a position
What are the two components of Petty & Cacioppo's Elaboration Likelihood Model?
- Central Route: when we are being persuaded about something very important to us, we require stronger arguments

- Peripheral route: when we are being persuaded about something that is not very important to us or we cannot hear the message clearly, the strength of the argument is less important than how it is presented and by whom
What is McGuire's psychological inoculation?
- People do not have practice defending cultural truisms because they are seldom questioned
- If you present participants with refuted counterarguments (counterarguments first, then refutation), it inoculates participants against future attacks on their beliefs
What is reactance?
When trying to persuade someone too hard, they can choose to believe the opposite of your opinion
What are the 3 components of Festinger's Social Comparison Theory?
- When objective nonsocial information is not available, people evaluate their opinions and abilities by comparing them to others
- The less similarity of opinions and abilities between two people, the less tendency to make comparisons
- When a discrepancy exists with respect to opinions and abilities, there is a tendency to change one's position so as to move it in line with the group
According to Schachter, what is the relationship between anxiety and affiliation?
- More anxious people seek more affiliation, especially with other anxious people
What is the reciprocity hypothesis?
We tend to like people who like us, and dislike people who do not like us
What is Aronson & Linder's gain-loss principle?
An evaluation that changes will have more of an impact than an evaluation that remains constant
What is social exchange theory?
A person weighs the costs and rewards of interacting with another person
What is equity theory?
We are happiest when our own costs and benefits are the same as others costs and benefits
What is need complementarity?
People choose relationships so that they mutually satisfy each other's needs (e.g. dominant seeks submissive)
What is Zajonc's mere exposure hypothesis?
Mere exposure to a stimulus leads to enhanced liking for it
According to Darley & Latane, how does social influence affect bystander intervention?
If people are surrounded by others who do not perceive a situation as an emergency, they are more likely to also view that situation as a nonemergency
What is Darley & Latane's concept of diffusion of responsibility?
The more people witnessing an emergency, the less likely individuals are to help because there is less personal responsibility for the outcome of the situation
What is Bateson's Empathy-Altruism Model?
Posits that people are more likely to show altruistic behavior when they are empathetic rather than distressed
According to Bandura, why are people aggressive?
- Modelling: direct observation of others being aggressive
- Reinforcement
Describe Sherif's conformity study.
- Autokinetic effect: staring at a point of light in a dark room makes the light appear like it is moving
- Individuals judgments of how far the light moved conformed to group judgments
Describe Asch's conformity study.
- Participants more often judged an obviously different line as the same length as other lines when confederates also did
Describe Milgram's obedience experiment.
- "Teachers" asked to administer shocks to "learners" by experimenters
- Participants likely to administer shocks despite learner's pleas to stop. All participants administered some shocks, and most participants administered all shocks asked to.
What is the foot-in-the-door effect?
Compliance with a small request increases compliance with subsequent larger requests
What is the door-in-the-face effect?
People who refuse an initial large request are more likely to agree to a later smaller request
What did Clark & Clark find in their doll preference study?
Both black and white children preferred white dolls to black dolls
What is the primacy effect?
Tendency to evaluate someone based on first impressions.
What is the recency effect?
Tendency to evaluate someone based on the most recent information gained about them.
What is the fundamental attribution error?
People tend to explain others behavior using dispositional attributions rather than situational attributions
What is the halo effect?
The tendency to allow a general impression about a person to influence other, more specific evaluations about a person
What is belief in a just world?
The belief that good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people.
What did Newcomb's study find?
People increasingly accept the norms of their communities the longer that they are exposed to them (people at a liberal college became more liberal over their education)
What did Hall suggest about cultural norms and space?
Cultural norms influence how much physical space is acceptable between people

Proxemics: the study of how individuals space themselves in relation to others
According to Zajonc, how does the presence of others affect performance?
The presence of others enhances dominant responses, so if the activity is highly practiced, social facilitation will result; however, if the activity is new, being around others will decrease performance
What is social loafing?
The tendency for people to put forth less effort in a group than they would if acting individually
What did Zimbardo's prison study conclude about anonymity?
Roles provided anonymity in the form of de-individuation, where there is a loss of self-awareness and personal identity
According to Janis, what is groupthink?
The tendency for decision-making groups to strive for consensus by not considering discordant information
What is risky shift?
The tendency for group decisions to be riskier than the average of the individual's choices
How does the value hypothesis explain risky shift?
Risky shift occurs in situations in which riskiness is culturally valued
What is group polarization?
A tendency for group discussion to enhance the group's initial tendencies towards riskiness or caution
In Lewin's study, how did leadership style affect groups?
- Democratic leadership styles made the boys happier, have higher work motivation and interest, and the group was more cohesive
- Autocratic styles made groups have higher productivity, but were more hostile, aggressive, and the boys were more dependent on their leaders
- Laissez-Faire styles were less efficient, organized and satisfying
What is the prisoner's dilemma?
A model of cooperation or competition where individuals gain the most if they cooperate the other person competes and lose the most if they compete and the other cooperates
What did Sherif find in the Robber's Cave experiment?
- Groups that competed became hostile toward each other
- Contact between group members did not reduce hostility
- Cooperation in problem-solving tasks reduced hostility
How did John Locke view children?
A child's mind is a tabula rasa (blank slate) at birth and child development is completely reliant on experiences with the environment
How did Jean-Jacques Rousseau view children?
Believed that society was a detriment to optimal development
What was Hall's contribution to developmental psychology?
Compiled hundreds of questionnaires on the views and opinions of children and compared them by age
How did Gesell view development?
As a maturational (biological) process, regardless of practice or training
What is a sequential cohort study?
Combine cross-sectional and longitudinal research methods, so several different ages are studied over several years
What is a gene (Mendel)?
Basic unit of heredity
What is an allele (Mendel)?
An alternative form of a gene that controls each specific trait and is either dominant or recessive
What is the genotype?
The total genetic complement of an individual
What is the phenotype?
The total collection of expressed traits that is the individual's observable characteristics
What are chromosomes?
An organized structure of DNA where genetic information is located
- Humans have 23 pairs
Which pair of chromosomes determines sex?
The 23rd pair (XX or XY)
What are diploid cells?
Cells that contain chromosomes in pairs (23 pairs = 46 chromosomes in each nucleus)
What are haploid cells?
Cells that contain 23 single chromosomes (gametes - sperm and egg cells)
What did Tyron's study on rats discover about genetics?
"Maze-bright" and "maze-dull" rats separated on basis of performance in a maze and then selectively breeded
- Difference between maze-bright and maze-dull rats was inherited from generation to generation
What causes Down's syndrome?
Having an extra 21st chromosome
What is phenylketonuira (PKU)?
A degenerative disease of the nervous system resulting from the enzyme needed to digest phenylalanine is lacking
What is Klinefelter's syndrome?
In males, possession of an extra X chromosome
- results in sterilization and mental retardation
What is Turner's syndrome?
Females with only one X chromosome, resulting in a failure to develop secondary sex characteristics and physical abnormalities
When does conception occur?
When the egg cell is fertilized by the male sperm cell in the fallopian tubes
What is a zygote?
A fertilized egg
What are gametes?
Human sex cells (haploid - 23 chromosomes each)
What is the germinal period?
A period of cell division that lasts approximately two weeks after conception, in which cellular mass travels down the fallopian tube into the uterus where it is implanted into the uterine wall
What is the embryonic stage?
Lasts approximately 8 weeks, where embryo increases in size and beings to develop a human appearance
What is the fetal period?
Takes place in the 3rd month, marked by the beginning of measurable electrical activity in the brain
What are the 4 stages of prenatal development?
1. Zygote
2. Germinal period
3. Embryonic period
4. Fetal period
What is a reflex?
A behavior that occurs automatically in response to a given stimulus
How can reflexes be used to assess neural development?
By comparing the point in time at which each of these reflexes appear to the established norm
What is the Moro reflex?
Infants react to abrupt movements of their heads by flinging out their arms, extending their fingers, and then bringing their arms back to their bodies and hugging themselves
What is the Babinski reflex?
Causes the toes to spread apart automatically when the sole of the foot is stimulated
What are Piaget's 4 stages of cognitive development?
1. Sensorimotor
2. Preoperational
3. Concrete operational
4. Formal operational
What is a schema (Piaget)?
Organized patterns of behavior and/or thought
What are Piaget's 2 processes of adaptation?
Assimilation: interpreting new information in terms of existing schemata

Accommodation: modifying existing schemata to adapt to new information
What is Piaget's sensorimotor stage?
Lasts from birth to age 2

- Primary and secondary circular reactions
- Object permanence
What are primary circular reactions?
Infant begins to coordinate separate aspects of movement (goal-oriented behavior)
What are secondary circular reactions?
Reactions directed towards manipulation of objects in the environments
What is object permanence?
When the child realizes that objects continue to exist even though the child cannot perceive their existence
What is representational thought?
The child has begun to make representations of external objects and events
What is the preoperational stage?
Lasts from 2 years to 7 years
- Beginning of representational thought
- Centration
- Cannot understand conservation
What is centration?
The tendency to be able to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon
What is conservation?
The notion that physical properties of matter do not change simply because the appearance of the matter changes
What is the concrete operational stage?
Ages seven to elevent
- Conservation
- Can take perspective of others
- Difficulty with abstract thought
What is the formal operational stage?
- Adolescence
- Child can think logically about abstract ideas
What did Piaget believe about language and thought?
The development of thought directed the developed of language
How did Vygotsky believe cognitive development occurs?
The child's internalization of various aspects of the culture drives cognitive development
What is Vygotsky's zone of proximal development?
Skills and abilities that have not yet fully developed but are in the process of development
What are the 4 basic components of language?
Phonology: sound of language (about 40 phonemes in English)
Semantics: meaning of language
Syntax: how works are put together to form sentences
Pragmatics: efficient use of a language
What is categorical perception (language)?
The ability to distinguish between differences in sound that do not denote differences and meaning and those differences in sound that do denote differences in meaning
According to Lenneberg, Rebelsky & Nichols, how is babbling presented in deaf and hearing children?
- All children babble starting at the same age, but hearing children babble more often
What are errors of growth in language development?
As children begin to master complex general rules about language, they make grammatical errors due to overgeneralizing the rule (e.g. I ranned)
What is Chomsky's concept of transformational grammar?
Changes in word order that differ with meaning
What is Chomsky's language acquisition device?
Innate concept for language acquisition that enables infants to listen to and process sounds
What does Genie tell us about language development?
There is a sensitive period of language development
What is Freud's concept of libido?
The sex drive or life drive
What are Freud's 5 stages of psychosexual development?
1. Oral: libidinal energy centered on the mouth; fixation can lead to excessive dependency
2. Anal: libidinal energy focused on the anus; fixation can lead to excessive orderliness or messiness
3. Phallic: Oedipal complex resolved in this stage
4. Latency: Libido is sublimated in this stage
5. Genital: if previous stages have been successfully resolved, the person will enter into normal heterosexual relations
What is the Oedipal conflict?
The male child envies his father's intimate relationship with his mother and fears castration by his father. He wishes to eliminate his father but feels guilty, so identifies with his father to resolve guilt
What are Erickson's 8 central life crises?
1. Trust versus mistrust (first year)
2. Autonomy versus shame and doubt (1-3 years)
3. Initiative versus guilt (3-6 years)
4. Industry versus inferiority (6-12 years)
5. Identity versus role confusion (adolescence)
6. Intimacy versus isolation (young adulthood)
7. Generativity versus stagnation (middle age)
8. Integrity versus despair (old age)
What 3 categories of infant temperament were proposed by Thomas & Chess?
- Easy
- Slow to warm up
- Difficulty
What are 3 ways temperament is measured?
- Parental reports of child behavior
- Observations in naturalistic settings
- Observations in laboratory settings
What are Wolff's 3 patterns of crying?
- Basic cry: associated with hunger
- Angry cry: associated with frustration
- Pain cry
What is social smiling?
Smiling associated with faces (at first, all faces, at 5 months, only familiar faces)
What is the fear response in infants?
- Fear evoked through any sudden change in level of stimulation
- By end of the first year, fear response reserved for the sudden absence of a specific individual or the presence of a harmful stimulus
What did Harlow discover about attachment?
"Surrogate" mothers that provided comfort were preferred to those that provided food to baby monkeys
- Wire mother monkeys more socially adept
What are Bowlby's stages of attachment?
- Pre-attachment: infant reacts identically to every adult and smiling face
- Phase 2: 3 month old infant discriminates between familiar and unfamiliar faces
- Phase 3: 6 month old infant seeks out and responds specifically to its mother
- Phase 4: 9-12 months old infant-mother bond intensifies and experience stranger anxiety
- Phase 5: 2nd year, child reacts with separation anxiety
- Phase 6: 3rd year, child is able to separate from the mother without prolonged distress
What is Ainsworth's "strange situation procedure"?
1. Mother and child in room
2. Stranger enters and interacts with mother and child
3. Mother leaves and stranger interacts with child
4. Mother returns, stranger leaves
5. Mother leaves child alone
6. Stranger returns
7. Mother returns
What are Ainsworth's 3 types of attachment behaviors?
- Insecure/avoidant attachment: not distressed when left alone with stranger and avoid contact with mother upon return
- Secure attachment: mildly distressed during separations from mother but positive when she returns
0 Insecure/resistant attachment: distressed about separation, resist physical contact with mother on return
What is Lorenz' concept of imprinting?
The rapid formation of an attachment bond between an organism and an object in the environment
What are Kolberg's stages of moral development?
Phase 1: Preconventional morality
- Stage 1: Punishment and obedience orientation: right and wrong defined by consequences
- Stage 2: Instrumental relativist stage: orientation towards reciprocity

2. Conventional phase
- Stage 3: "Good girl, nice boy" orientation, in which one is looking for approval of others
- Stage 4: "Law and order orientation": morality defined by rules of authority

Phase 3: Post-conventional morality
- Stage 5: Social contract orientation: moral rules seen as convention designed to ensure the greater good
- Stage 6: acting in accordance with universal ethical principles
What is the Heinz dilemma?
Moral dilemma Kolberg devised in order to see which stage of moral development children were in
How does Gilligan criticize Kohlberg's stages of moral development?
Males and females adopt different perspectives on moral develop because of differences in socialization
- Females more interpersonal orientation
What are Kohlberg's gender stages?
- Gender labelling (2-3 years): children achieve a gender identity and label others in terms of their sex
- Gender stability (3-4 years): children can predict whether they will still be a boy or a girl when they grow up
- Gender consistency (4-7 years): children understand the permanency of gender
What is Martin & Halverson's gender schematic processing theory?
As soon as children being to label themselves by gender, they begin concentrating on those behaviors that seem to be associated with their gender, and pay less attention to those they believe are associated with the opposite gender
What are Baumrind's 3 parenting styles?
- Authoritative
- Authoritarian
- Permissive
How do mothers and fathers differ in their interactions with children?
- Fathers tend to play more vigorously with children than mothers
- Mothers tend to stress verbal over physical interactions
What are Sheldon's 3 somatotypes?
- Endomorphs (soft and spherical)
- Mesomorphs (hard and muscular)
- Ectomorphs (thin and fragile)
Who were 2 early reformers of the mental health system?
- Pinel
- Dix
What is Kraepelin's contribution to psychology?
Noted that symptom patterns could be considered specific types of mental disorders; precursor to DSM
What are the 3 main systems in Freud's structural dynamic model?
1. Id (pleasure principle)
Primary process: instant gratification (can be through wish-fulfillment)

2. Ego (reality principle: takes objective reality into account as it guides the activity of the id)
Secondary process

3. Superego
- conscience
- ego-ideal
What is wish-fulfillment?
The mental image of an object desired by the id
What is an instinct? What are Freud's two general types of instincts?
An innate psychological representation of a bodily excitation

Life (eros) and death (thanatos)
What are the two common characteristics of defence mechanisms?
1) deny, falsify or distort reality
2) operate unconsciously
What are Freud's 8 main defence mechanisms?
1. Repression
2. Suppression (deliberate forgetting)
3. Projection
4. Reaction formation
5. Rationalization
6. Regression
7. Sublimation: transforming unacceptable urges into socially acceptable behavior
8. Displacement: pent up feelings discharged on others than those who are causing the feelings
What are the 2 parts of Jung's unconscious?
- Personal unconscious
- Collective unconscious: includes archetypes shared among all humans and considered a residue of the experiences of our early ancestors
What is an archetype?
A thought or image that has an emotional element
What are 5 major Jungian archetypes?
1. Persona: make adopted by a person in response to the demands of social convention
2. Anima: feminine
3. Animus: masculine
4. Shadow: animal instincts
5. Self: striving for unity between personal and collective unconscious
What are Jung's two major orientations of personality?
- Extroversion: orientation toward the external, objective world

- Introversion: orientation toward the inner, subjective world
What are Jung's 4 psychological functions?
- Thinking
- Feeling
- Sensing
- Judging
What is Adler's inferiority complex?
The individual's sense of incompleteness, imperfection, physical inferiorities, and social desirabilities
What is personality according to Adler?
Striving toward superiority drives the personality
- If striving is socially oriented (striving benefits all people), personality is enhanced
- If striving is selfish, it becomes the root of personality disturbances
What is Adler's creative self?
Force by which each individual shapes his or her uniqueness and makes his or her own personality
What is Adler's style of life?
The manifestation of the creative self that describes a person's unique way of achieving superiority
What is Adler's fictional finalism?
Notion that an individual is motivated more by his or her expectations of the future than by past experiences
According to Horney, how do neurotic needs differ from healthy needs?
- Disproportionate in intensity
- Indiscriminate in application
- Partially disregard reality
- Tendency to provoke intense anxiety
What is Horney's concept of basic anxiety?
A sense of helplessness as a child causes confusion and insecurity, and produces basic anxiety
According to Horney, what are three strategies in relationships with others that can be used to overcome basic anxiety?
- Moving toward people
- Moving against people
- Moving away from people

Healthy people use all three strategies, but neurotic people use one exclusively
What is Freud's concept of resistance?
An unwillingness or inability to relate to certain thoughts, motives, or experiences
What is countertransference?
The therapist's experience of emotions toward the patient
What is Seligman's learned helplessness theory of depression?
Individuals who consistently face difficult situations from which they cannot escape learn to feel powerless to overcome their problems
According to behaviorists, how is abnormal behavior caused?
Through interactions between people and the environment
What is Beck's cognitive therapy for depression?
Client asked to write down negative thoughts about himself or herself, figure out why they are unjustified, and come up with more realistic and less destructive cognitions
What is Ellis' rational-emotive therapy?
Therapist challenges an irrational belief that the client has, helping him or her to recognize these beliefs and change them to more rational ones
What is symptom substitution?
When new symptoms develop to replace the old ones if the underlying cause is not dealt with (psychoanalysis)
What is Lewin's field theory?
Personality can be divided up dynamically into ever-changing regions called systems. Under optima conditions, the regions within the personality are well articulated and function in an integrated fashion. When the person is under tension or anxiety, articulation between various regions is generally diffused
What is Maslow's need hierarchy?
1. Physiological and safety needs
2. Belongingness and love needs
3. Esteem needs
4. Self-Actualization
What is self-actualization?
The need to realize one's fullest potential
What are peak experiences?
Profound and deeply moving experiences in a person's life that have important and lasting effects on the individual
How did Kelly conceptualize individuals?
As scientists devising and testing predictions about the behavior of significant people in his or her life based on his knowledge, perception and relationships with these other people
According to Kelly, why are people anxious?
Anxious people are having difficulty constructing and understanding the variables in his or her environment
What is the objective of Rogers' client-centered therapy?
To help the client become willing and able to help himself or herself and to increase the congruence between what the person thinks he or she should be (ideal self) and what he or she actually is
What causes mental illness in Frankl's view?
Life of meaninglessness
What is the difference between Type A and Type B personalities?
Type A: competitive and compulsive behavior
Type B: laid-back and relaxed
What is Cattell's contribution to personality psychology?
Used factor analysis to identify 16 basic traits that constitute the building blocks of personality
What are Eysenck's 3 dimensions of personality?
- Introversion-extroversion
- Emotional stability-neuroticism
- Psychoticism
What are Allport's 3 basic types of traits?
- Cardinal: traits around which a person organizes his or her life
- Central: major characteristics of the personality that are easy to infer
- Secondary: personal characteristics that are limited in occurrence
What is Allport's concept of functional autonomy?
A given activity or form of behavior may become an end or goal in itself, regardless of its original reason for existence
What is Allport's distinction between an idiographic and nomothetic approach to personality?
Idiographic: focuses on individual case studies

Nomothetic: focuses on individual and groups and tries to find the commonalities between individuals
What is McClelland's need for achievement?
A personality trait where people tend to be concerned with achievement and have pride in their accomplishments, avoid high and low risks, and set realistic goals
What is Witkin's concept of field-dependence?
Field-independence: capacity to make specific responses to perceived specific stimuli

Field dependence: diffuse response to a perceive mass of undifferentiated stimuli
What is Rotter's concept of locus of control?
Internal locus of control: people tend to believe they control their own destiny

External locus of control: believe that outside events and chance control their destiny
What is Machiavellianism?
Personality trait that refers to someone who is manipulative and deceitful
What is Bem's concept of androgyny?
The state of being simultaneously very masculine and very feminine
How does Mischel criticize personality theorists?
Human behavior is largely determined by the situation rather than personal characteristics
What are the axes of the DSM-IV?
Axis I: clinical disorders except for personality disorders and mental retardation

Axis II: personality disorders and mental retardation

Axis III: relevant medical conditions

Axis IV: psychosocial or environmental stresses

Avis V: Global Assessment of Functioning
What is ADD/HD?
Atypical inattention or impulsivity-hyperactivity
What is autistic disorder?
Lack of responsiveness to others, gross impairment in communication skills, repetitive behaviors, language impairment, sensory sensitivity
What is Tourette's disorder?
A tic disorder characterized by multiple motor tics and more or more vocal tics
What are the positive symptoms of schizophrenia?
Behaviors, thoughts or affects added to normal behavior (e.g. delusions, hallucinations)

2 dimensions:
- Psychotic
- Disorganized
What are the negative symptoms of schizophrenia?
Symptoms that involve the absence of normal or desired behavior (e.g. flat affect)
What are delusions?
False beliefs
What are hallucinations?
Perceptions that are not due to external stimuli but have a compelling sense of reality
What is disorganized thought?
Loosening of associations (no structure in sentences or between subjects)
What is the prodromal phase of schizophrenia?
Pre-diagnosis phase where patient shows clear evidence of deterioration, social withdrawal, role functioning impairment, peculiar behavior, inappopriate affect and unusual experiences
What is process schizophrenia?
If the development of schizophrenia is slow and insidious
What is reactive schizophrenia?
If the onset of symptoms is sudden and intense
What are the 5 subtypes of schizophrenia?
- Catatonic: disturbance in motor behaviour
- Paranoid: preoccupation with one or more delusions or hallucinations
- Disorganized: flat or inappropriate affect and disorganized speech and behavior
- Undifferentiated
- Residual: positive symptoms not currently displayed
What is the dopamine hypothesis?
Delusions, hallucinations and agitation associated with schizophrenia arise from an excess of dopamine activity at certain cites in the brain
What is the double-bind hypothesis?
As a child, the person with schizophrenia received contradictory and mutually incompatible messages from his or her primary caregiver
What is major depressive disorder?
At least 1 two week period during which there is a prominent and relatively persistent depressed mood, or loss in interest in all or almost all activities
What is the difference between bipolar I disorder and bipolar II disorder?
Bipolar I: manic episodes
Bipolar II: hypomania: energy and optimism
What are dysthymic and cyclothymic disorders?
Dysthymic: less severe depression
Cyclothymic: less severe bipolar
What are neurotransmitters?
Chemicals that help individual neurons communicate with each other
What 2 neurotransmitters are implicated in depression?
Norepinephrine and serotonin
What is the monoamine/catecholamine theory of depression?
Too much norepinephrine and serotonin leads to mania, while too little leads to depression
What is agoraphobia?
Fear of being in open places or in situations where escape might be difficult
What are somatoform disorders?
Involve the presence of physical symptoms that suggest a medical condition but which are not fully explained by a medical condition
What is a conversion disorder?
Characterized by unexplained symptoms affecting voluntary motor or sensory functions
What is hypochondriasis?
Preoccupation with fears that he or she has a serious disease
What is dissociative amnesia?
Inability to recall past experience
What is dissociative fugue?
Amnesia that accompanies a sudden, unexpected move away from one's house or location
What is dissociative identity disorder?
Two or more personalities recurrently take control of a person's behavior
What is depersonalization disorder?
Person feels detached, like an outside observer of his or her mental processes and/or behavior
What is schizoid personality disorder?
A pervasive pattern of detachment from social relationships and a restricted range of emotional expression
What is narcissistic personality disorder?
Grandiose sense of self-importance or uniqueness, preoccupation with fantasies of success, an exhibitionistic need for constant admiration and attention, and characteristic disturbances in interpersonal relationships
What is borderline personality disorder?
Pervasive instability in interpersonal behavior, mood, and self-image; unstable and intense personal relationships
What is antisocial personality disorder?
Pattern of disregard for, and violation of, the rights of others
What is the diathesis-stress model?
Predisposition toward developing a specific mental disorder (diathesis) interacts with excessive stress to cause a mental disorder
What is primary prevention?
Efforts to seek out and eradicate conditions that foster mental illness and to establish conditions that foster mental health
What did Rosenhan discover about the label "mentally ill"?
Once someone has been labelled mentally ill, all of their behavior is considered part of their mental illness

Mental illness can be feigned and misdiagnosed
How does Szasz criticize the system of labelling people as mentally ill?
Labeling people as mentally ill is a way to force them to change or conform to societal norms rather than allowing them to attach the societal causes of their problems
What is structuralism?
- Titchener
- Breaks consciousness into elements by using introspection
What is functionalism?
- James
- Dewey
- Stream of consciousness; studies how mind functions to help people adapt to the environment
What is Gestalt psychology?
- Wertheimer, Kohler, Koffka
- Whole is something other than the sum of its parts
What is humanism?
Looks at people as wholes; humans have free will; psychology should study mentally healthy people
What was Gall's doctrine of phrenology?
If a trait is well-developed, then the part of the brain responsible for that trait should expand
What is extirpation?
Surgical removal of parts of the brain
What did Flourens discover about the brain?
The brain has specific parts for specific functions, and the removal of one part weakens the whole brain
What is Muller's law of specific nerve energies?
Each sensory never is excited by only one kind of energy, and the brain interprets any stimulation of that nerve as being that kind of energy
What are sensory (afferent) neurons?
Neurons that transmit sensory information from receptors to the spinal cord and brain
What are motor (efferent) neurons?
Transmit motor information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles
What are interneurons?
Found between other neurons and are linked to reflexive behavior
What are reflex arcs?
Neural circuits that control reflexive behavior
What is the central nervous system?
Composed of the brain and spinal cord