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152 Cards in this Set
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developmental psychology |
The field of psychology that describes and explains the changes in human behavior over time.
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British empiricist school of thought
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A belief that all knowledge is gained through experience.
This school of thought was followed by great thinkers such as John Locke, Thomas Hobbes, George Berkeley, David Hume, James Mill, and John Stuart Mill. |
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tabula rasa
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The theory that a child's mind is a "blank slate" at birth and that all development is completely reliant on experiences with the environment.
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John Locke
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British philosopher who suggested the tabula rasa theory and proposed that development was dependent upon experience in the environment.
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Jean-Jacques Rousseau
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French philosopher who suggested that development could unfold without help from society and that experience could be a detriment to optimal development.
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Charles Darwin
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Developed the theory of evolution.
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functionalism
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A system of thought in psychology that was concerned with studying how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environments.
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G. Stanley Hall
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"the father of developmental psychology"
The founder of the American Psychological Association and the founder of child and adolescent psychology. |
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John Watson
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An American psychologist who believed that emotions, as well as thought, were acquired through learning.
He also asserted that the only useful methods for the study of psychology were objective methods in the study of behavior (never considering concepts such as consciousness, imagery, etc.). |
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Arnold Gesell
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A nativist who believed that development occurred as a maturational (or biological) process, regardless of practice or training.
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psychodynamic orientation
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Theories that stress the role of subconscious conflicts in the development of functioning and personality.
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Sigmund Freud
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Outlined the five stages of psychosexual development; stressed the importance of the Oedipal conflict in psychosexual development.
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cognitive structuralism
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System of thought that refers to breaking consciousness down to its elements.
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cross-sectional studies
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Studies that compare groups of subjects at different ages.
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longitudinal studies
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Studies that compare a specific group of people over an extended period of time.
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sequential cohort studies
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Studies that combine cross-sectional and longitudinal research methods wherein several groups of different ages are studied over several years.
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case study method
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Study in which a psychologist takes a detailed look at a particular person.
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nature/nurture controversy
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The debate over whether human capabilities are innate and largely determined by genetic makeup or determined by the environment and shaped by experience.
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Gregor Mendel
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An Austrian monk who proposed the existence of the gene by studying pea plants.
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gene
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The basic unit of heredity.
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allele
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An alternative form of a gene; for any given gene there are two.
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dominant trait
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A trait that is likely to be expressed.
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recessive trait
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A trait that is unlikely to be expressed unless there are two alleles of this type present.
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genotype
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The total genetic makeup of an individual.
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phenotype
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The total collection of expressed traits that is the individual's observable characteristics.
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chromosomes
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An organized structure of DNA and protein found in cells where the gene is located.
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diploid
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Cells that possess two matched sets of chromosomes in the cell nucleus, one set from each parent.
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haploid
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Cells that possess single, unpaired chromosomes.
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gametes
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Sperm and egg cells, which are haploid.
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R.C. Tryon
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Studied the genetic basis of maze-running ability in rats to provide evidence that learning ability had a genetic basis.
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twin studies
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Studies that compare monozygotic and dizygotic twins.
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monozygotic (MZ)
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Twins who are genetically identical and share 100% of their genes.
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dizygotic (DZ)
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Twins who are not genetically identical and share approximately 50% of their genes.
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Lewis Terman
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Performed a longitudinal study on gifted children.
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Down's syndrome
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A genetic anomaly in which the individual has an extra 21st chromosome.
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Phenylketonuria (PKU)
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A genetic degenerative disease of the nervous system in which the enzyme needed to digest phenylalanine is missing.
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phenylalanine
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An amino acid found in milk and other foods.
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Klinefelter's syndrome
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Possession of an extra X chromosome in males (causing an XXY configuration). This syndrome causes sterility and often mental retardation.
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Turner's syndrome
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Possession of only one X chromosome in females. This syndrome causes a failure to develop secondary sex characteristics and often physical abnormalities such as short fingers and unusually shaped mouths.
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zygote
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A fertilized egg.
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germinal period
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A period of about two weeks from the time of conception in prenatal development during which the fertilized egg travels down the fallopian tube and is implanted in the uterine wall.
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embryonic stage
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A eight week period in prenatal development that follows the germinal period during which an embryo begins to develop a human appearance and increases in size about 2 million percent.
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fetal period
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The period in prenatal development that begins during the third month and is marked by the beginning of measurable electrical activity in brain.
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The effect on the infant of a mother who contracts rubella before the end of the second month of pregnancy.
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Risk of cataracts, deafness, heart defects, and mental retardation.
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Viral infections that have been linked to birth defects.
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Measles, mumps, rubella, hepatitis, influenza, chickenpox, and herpes.
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thalidomide
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A tranquilizer that was prescribed during the 1950s that caused pregnant women to give birth to babies with missing and malformed limbs and defects of the heart, eyes, digestive tract, ears, and kidneys.
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The effect of maternal malnutrition on an infant.
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Retarded growth, mental retardation, and reduced immunities to disease.
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The effect of maternal narcotic addiction on an infant.
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The infant becomes chemically dependent and undergoes a traumatic withdrawal upon birth.
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The effect of maternal smoking on an infant.
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Slowed growth, increased fetal heart rate, and greater chance for premature birth.
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The effect on an infant of a mother drinking daily.
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Retarded growth and mental retardation.
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The effects of prenatal exposure to X-rays.
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Mental retardation; defects of the skull, spinal cord, and eyes; cleft palate, and limb deformities.
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reflex
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A behavior that occurs automatically in response to a given stimulus.
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rooting reflex
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The automatic turning of the head in the direction of a stimulus that touches the cheek.
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Moro reflex
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Infants react to abrupt movements of their heads by flinging out their arms and then hugging themselves. This reflex disappears after about four months.
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Babinski reflex
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Infants spread their toes apart automatically when the sole of the foot is stimulated.
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grasping reflex
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Infants will close their fingers around objects placed in their hands.
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Jean Piaget
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Outlined the four stages of cognitive development.
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schema
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A conceptual framework used to organize knowledge. (Plural: schemata)
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The complementary processes of adaptation
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Assimilation and accommodation
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assimilation
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The process of interpreting new information in terms of existing schemata.
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accommodation
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The process of modifying existing schemata to adapt to new information.
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The 4 stages of cognitive development
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1. Sensorimotor
2. Preoperational 3. Concrete operational 4. Formal operational |
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sensorimotor stage
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The first stage of cognitive development (birth - 2 years) during which primary and secondary circular reactions and object permanence develops.
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primary circular reactions
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The beginning of goal-oriented behavior during which an infant begins to coordinate separate aspects of movement related to the body.
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secondary circular reactions
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The part of development during which an infant begins to coordinate separate aspects of movement related to manipulation of objects in the environment.
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object permanence
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The beginning of representational thought in which an infant realizes that an object continues to exist even when it is out of sight.
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preoperational stage
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The second stage of development (2 - 7 years) during which children understand that objects out of sight continue to exist but their existence cannot be perceived.
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centration
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The tendency to be able to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon.
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egocentrism
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The inability to take the perspective of other people and to understand that relationships are reciprocal.
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conservation
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The fact that physical properties of matter (such as volume and quantity) do not change simply because the appearance of the matter changes.
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concrete operational stage
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The third stage of development (7 - 11 years) during which children can conserve and take the perspective of others into account, but are limited to working with concrete objects or information that is directly available. Children in this stage have not mastered abstract thought.
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formal operational stage
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The fourth stage of development (11 - 17 years) during which children can think logically about abstract ideas.
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Piaget's theory about language
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Piaget hypothesized that the development of thought directed the development of language.
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Lev Vygotsky
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Studied cognitive development and stressed the importance of the zone of proximal development.
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zone of proximal development |
Those skills and abilities that have not yet fully developed but are in the process of development through the guidance of others. |
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How is the zone of proximal development measured? |
A child takes a test and receives a certain score. The child retakes the test with guidance from an adult, improving the score. The difference between these two scores is the zone of proximal development. |
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What are the 4 basic components of language? |
1. phonology
2. semantics
3. syntax
4. pragmatics |
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phonology |
The actual sound stem of language. |
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categorical perception |
The ability to distinguish between differences in sound that do not denote differences in meaning and those differences in sound that do denote differences in meaning. |
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semantics |
The learning of word meanings. |
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syntax |
How words are put together to form sentences. |
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pragmatics |
The efficient use of language. |
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babbling |
An important predecessor to language present in the first year in life, even in deaf children. |
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Lenneberg, Rebelsky, and Nichols |
Showed that the age babbling begins is about the same for hearing children with hearing parents, hearing children with deaf parents, and deaf children. However, for hearing children, babbling continues and becomes more frequent around 9-12 months. |
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At what age does a child begin combining words? |
18-20 months |
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Knowledge of a language |
Defined by the ability to produce novel, grammatically correct sentences while refraining from producing grammatically incorrect ones and implies the ability to distinguish between such sentences. |
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At what age do children begin to produce long sentences? |
2 1/2 - 3 years |
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errors of growth |
Also called overregulation; an increase in grammatical errors as children begin to master complex general rules of language.
Evidence that language acquisition is not the result of imitation or reinforcement. |
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At what age is a child's native language substantially mastered? |
5 years |
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Noam Chomsky |
Linguist who suggested that children have an innate capacity for language acquisition and is known for his study of transformational grammar. |
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transformational grammar |
Changes in word order that differ with meaning. |
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language acquisition device (LAD) |
The innate capacity for language acquisition that is thought to be triggered by exposure to language. |
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What age did Chomsky consider to be the critical period for language acquisition? |
2 years - puberty |
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Genie |
A famous victim of child abuse who was almost completely isolated from human contact from age 2 to 13.
She was able to learn some aspects of syntax but not others, which provided evidence for a sensitive period rather than a critical period for language development. |
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Sigmund Freud |
A pioneer in charting personality and emotional growth. |
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libido |
Sex drive; Freud believed that this was present at birth and was an underlying dynamic force that accounted for human psychological process. |
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What are the 5 stages of psychosexual development? |
1. Oral
2. Anal
3. Phallic
4. Latency
5. Genital |
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oral stage |
Ages 0 - 1 year
Libidinal energy centered on the mouth; gratification is obtained primarily through the putting of objects into the mouth by biting and sucking.
Fixation can lead to excessive dependency. |
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anal stage |
Ages 1 -3 years
Libidinal energy centered on the anus; gratification is obtained through elimination and retention of waste materials.
Fixation can lead to excessive orderliness or messiness. |
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phallic stage |
Ages 3 - 5 years
Oedipal/Electra conflict is resolved during this stage and libidinal energy becomes sublimated. |
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Oedipal conflict |
Circumstance in which male children wish to possess the other and fear castration by the father. Guilty feelings lead the child to identify with the father and libidinal energy is sublimated by focusing on collecting objects or doing schoolwork.
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Electra conflict |
Analogous to the Oedipal conflict, this condition develops in female children according to Freud. |
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latency stage |
Ages 5 years - puberty
Libido is largely sublimated during this stage. |
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genital stage |
Ages puberty through adulthood
If previous stages have been successfully resolved, a person will enter into heterosexual relationships at this stage. |
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Erik Erikson |
Outlined eight stages of psychosocial development spanning the entire lifespan. |
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psychosocial theory |
Holds that development is a sequence of central life crises and for each of these there is a possible favorable and unfavorable outcome. Emphasizes emotional development and interaction with the environment. |
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What are the stages of psychosocial theory? |
1. Trust vs. mistrust 2. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt 3. Initiative vs. guilt 4. Industry vs. inferiority 5. Identity vs. role confusion 6. Intimacy vs. isolation 7. Generativity vs. stagnation 8. Integrity vs. despair |
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trust vs. mistrust stage |
Ages 0 - 1 year
The 1st conflict
Favorable outcome: a child emerges coming to trust himself and environment
Unfavorable outcome: a child will be suspicious of his world. |
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autonomy vs. shame and doubt |
Ages 1 - 3 years
The 2nd conflict
Favorable outcome: feelings of will, ability to exercise choice, and a sentence of competence
Unfavorable outcome: a feeling that whatever happens to one is the result of external influences. |
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initiative vs. guilt |
Ages 3 - 6 years
The 3rd conflict
Favorable outcome: purpose, ability to initiate activities, ability to enjoy accomplishments
Unfavorable outcome: overcome with fear of punishment, restricted, overcompensating. |
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industry vs. inferiority |
Ages 6 - 12 years
The 4th conflict
Favorable outcome: competence, able to exercise abilities and intelligence, able to affect the world.
Unfavorable outcome: sense of inadequacy, sense of inability to act in a competent manner, low self-esteem |
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identity vs. role confusion |
Adolescence
The 5th conflict, "physiological revolution"
Favorable outcome: ability to see oneself as a unique and integrated person with sustained loyalties.
Unfavorable outcome: confusion about one's identity, amorphous personality that constantly changes. |
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intimacy vs. isolation |
Young adulthood
The 6th conflict
Favorable outcome: love, commitment, intimacy, perseverance towards goals
Unfavorable outcome: avoidance of commitment, alienation, distancing of oneself, withdrawal. |
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generativity vs. stagnation |
Middle age
The 7th conflict
Favorable outcome: productivity, caring, contributing to society.
Unfavorable outcome: self-indulgence, bored, self-centered, little care for others. |
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integrity vs. despair |
Old age
The 8th conflict
Favorable outcome: wisdom, assurance in the meaning of life, acceptance that life has been worthwhile.
Unfavorable outcome: bitterness, a feeling that life has been worthless, fear over impending death. |
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temperament |
The central aspect of an individual's personality; an individual's pattern of responding to the environment.
Somewhat heritable, stable, and pervasive. |
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Thomas and Chess |
Performed a longitudinal study to examine temperament and proposed three categories of infant emotional and behavioral style: "easy," "slow to warm up," and "difficult." |
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What are the 3 ways in which temperament is measured? |
1. Parental reports of child behavior
2. Observations in naturalistic settings
3. Observations in laboratory settings
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Wolff |
Studied crying in infants and identified 3 types of cries: hunger, frustration, and pain.
Found that even nonparent adults react with heart-rate accelerations following infant pain cries. |
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At what age do infants begin to learn that caregivers will respond to their cries? |
2 months |
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social smiling |
Smiling associated with facelike patterns.
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At what age does social smiling become differentiated to only familiar faces? |
5 months |
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The development of fear responses |
Infants: any sudden change in level of stimulation
First year of life: separation anxiety, stranger anxiety
Second year of life: sudden absence of a specific individual (like a parent) or the presence of a person or object that has been harmful to the child in the past. Response becomes context-dependent. |
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Harry Harlow |
Used rhesus monkeys and "surrogate mothers" to study the role of contact comfort in bond formation. |
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contact comfort |
Determined by Harlow to be more essential in bond formation than providing for physical needs. |
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John Bowlby |
Identified several phases of the attachment process in humans:
1. 0-3 months: pre-attachment. 2. 3-6 months: infant begins to discriminate faces 3. 6-9 months: infant begins to seek out mother. 4. 9-12 months: bonding intensifies and infant begins to fear strangers 5. 2 years: separation anxiety develops 6. 3 years: separation no longer causes prolonged distress |
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separation anxiety |
A strong protest to the absence of a parent as defined by John Bowlby. |
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Mary Ainsworth |
Devised the "strange situation procedure" to study attachment in Ugandan infants. |
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strange situation procedure |
A study designed to measure infant-parent attachment and identified 3 types:
Type A - insecure/avoidant Type B- secure Type C- insecure/resistant |
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insecure/avoidant attachment |
Infants who are not distressed when left alone with a stranger and avoid contact with the mother upon return. |
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secure attachment |
Infants who are mildly distressed during separations from the mother but who greet her positively when she returns. |
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insecure/ resistant attachment |
Infants who are distressed during the separation and resist physical contact with the mother upon return. |
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Konrad Lorenze |
Ethologist who studied imprinting in birds and believed that all imprinting takes place during a critical period in development. |
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Lawrence Kohlberg |
Studied moral development using moral dilemmas. |
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What are the 3 phases of Kohlberg's theory of moral development? |
1. Pre conventional morality
2. Conventional morality
3. Post conventional morality |
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pre conventional morality |
1st phase of moral development during which right and wrong are defined by the hedonistic consequences of a given action (punishment or reward).
Stage 1: orientation toward punishment and obedience
Stage 2: orientation toward reciprocity (the instrumental relativist stage). |
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conventional morality |
2nd phase of moral development during which social rules are learned.
Stage 3: "good girl, nice boy" orientation, approval from others is sought.
Stage 4: "law-and-order" orientation, morality is defined by the rules of the authority. |
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post conventional morality |
3rd phase of moral development.
Stage 5: social contract orientation, moral rules are seen as a convention designed to ensure the greater good.
Stage 6: universal ethical principles guide behavior. |
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The Heinz Dilemma |
A test devised by Kohlberg to determine the moral level of a given individual.
In the scenario, Heinz is a man who steals medicine to cure his dying wife because he cannot afford to pay for it. |
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Carol Gilligan |
Criticized Kohlberg's theory of moral development and suggested that males and females have different orientations toward morality in which women adopt a more interpersonal orientation as oppose to the rule-bound orientation of men. |
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What are the 3 stages in Kohlberg's theory of self-socialization? |
1. gender labeling
2. gender stability
3. gender consistency |
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gender labeling |
Ages 2-3 years
The 1st stage of self-socialization
The stage in which children achieve gender identity and are able to recognize the gender of themselves and others.
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gender stability |
Ages 3-4 years
The 2nd stage of self-socialization
The stage in which children superficially understand that they will continue to be either boys or girls when they grow up based on the physical notion of gender. |
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gender consistency |
Ages 4-7 years
The 3rd stage of self-socialization
The stage in which understand the permanency of gender, regardless of how one behaves or what one wears. |
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Martin and Halverson |
Proposed gender schematic processing theory |
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gender schematic processing theory |
Builds upon Kohlberg's self-socialization theory and holds that as soon as children are able to label themselves, they begin to concentrate on the behaviors that seem to be associated with their gender and pay less attention to those they believe are associated with the opposite gender. |
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Diane Baumrind |
Studied the relationship between parental style and aggression. |
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What are the 3 parenting styles that were proposed by Baumrind? |
1. authoritarian
2. authoritative
3. permissive |
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authoritarian parents |
Tend to use punitive control methods and lack emotional warmth. |
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authoritative parents |
Tend to have high demands for child compliance, use few punitive control methods, rely heavily on positive reinforcement, and exhibit emotional warmth. |
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permissive parents |
Tend to score very low on control/demand measures of parenting techniques. |
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Differences in parenting between fathers and mothers |
Fathers: tend to play more vigorously with children.
Mothers: tend to stress verbal over physical interactions. |
