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262 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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what is an intramolecular bond |
it is a bond within a molecule |
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what are some examples of an intramolecular bond |
ionic bonds and covalent bonds |
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what does an ionic bond entail |
the giving/transfering of electrons to another element forming an ion this is between a metal and a non-metal |
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what is a negatiove ion called |
a anion |
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what is a positive ion called |
a cation |
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what does a covalent bond entail |
the sharing of valence electrons between two non-metals |
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what makes a covalent bond non-polar |
when the electrons are evenly distributed/shared by the atoms |
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what makes a covalent bond polar |
when the electrons are not evenly distributed/shared due to electronegativity |
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what is electronegativity |
it is the atom's ability to attract shared pair electrons |
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polar covalent bond vs polar covalent molecule |
polar covalent bond is the bond causing certain atoms to be d+ or d- polar covalent molecules are when these bonds are counted up and may not result in a overall polar molecule |
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what bond is stronger, ionic or covalent? why |
covalent bonds are stronger the reasoning is due to the fact that ionic bonds are between metal cation and non-metal anions. this attraction is between the opposite charges. meanwhile, covalent bonds are between two Neutral non-metals that are attracted by the nuclei and valence electrons the Nuclei > just charges |
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what is a intermolecular bond |
it is a bond between two different molecules |
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what are some examples of an intermolecular bond |
hydrogen bonds sulfide bridges |
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what do hydrogen bonds entail. is this bond strong |
`it is the bond between a hydrogen molecule and a highly electronegative molecule it occurs between the hydrogen and elements like Oxygen, Nitrogen and Fluorine it is a weak bond |
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what does a sulfide bridge entail |
it is a bond between two thiol groups. thiol is a functional group containing sulfur bonded to a hydrogen atom. this bond occurs when the two sulfurs connect |
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why is ice less dence than water |
it is due to the fact that ice had more space within its structure. this space is formed from the hydrogen bonds that are able to maintain itself under cold environments |
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what are the benefits of ice being more dence than water |
it allows aquatic life to be sustained hence within cold climates, the ice is formed at the top of the water. also, it allows the ocean floor to not be frozen forever |
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what are 4 properties of water |
it is a polar molecule it is able to form hydrogen bonds hydrogen is d+ oxygen is d- |
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why does water have high surface tension |
cohesion the water molecules are able to "cling" to each other due to the hydrogen bonds with one another |
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why is water liquid at room temperature? how does this differ to other molecules? what are some examples of this differ in other molecules |
it is due to hydrogen bonding, hence the hydrogen bonds keep the molecule together most molecules with low molecular weight are gases at room temperature examples include O2, N2, CO2 |
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what is the property of water that explains water's ability to allow light waves to slow down when they travel through the more dense substance |
high light transmission |
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what is the term to describe waters ability to resist breaking under tension |
tensile strength |
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what is an example of strong cohension demonstrated by water. why does water have this property |
transpiration in plants because of the hydrogen bonds that allow water to attract polar molecules |
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what does a versatile solvent refer to and what are some examples |
It refers to "Like molecules" dissoling in "Like" Molecules. polar molecules = hydrophilic (Easily dissolve in water non-polar molecules = Hydrophobic (Do not dissolve in water) |
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do hydrophilic molecules dissolve in water? |
YEs hence they are polar |
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do non-polar molecules dissolve in water |
No because they are hydrophobic |
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what is high specific heat capacity in regards to water |
I demonstrates that the hydrogen bonds within water aid to absorb large amounts of heat before it increases the temperature therefore, water can lose a lot of heat before its temperature decreases |
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When talking about organic chemistry, what element must be present |
carbon |
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what are hydrocarbons |
molecules with only hydrogen and carbon |
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what are the different types of hydrocarbons |
Alkanes, Alkenes and Alkynes |
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what are alkanes? And what are there characteristics |
alkanes are saturated they only hold single bonds between carbons and hydrogens H H-C-H H |
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What are alkenes? and what are there characteristics |
Alkenes are unsaturated they hold at least one double bond between hydrogens and carbons H- -H H- C=C -H |
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What are alkynes? and what are there characteristics |
they are unsaturated They hold at least one triple bond between carbons attached to hydrogens H- C=C -H - |
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WHat is a cyclic formation |
it is a ring that forms between carbons |
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What is an aromatic formation (Benezene) |
It is a hexagon/pentagon shaped cyclic to that contains a altering double bond/single bond structure between 6 carbons attached to hydrogens
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what is saturation? and are what state are they in at room temperature |
when a hydrocarbon contains the full capacity of hydrogen they are solid at room temperature |
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what does unsaturated mean? and what state are they in at room temperature |
unsaturated is when there is a double/triple bond present in the hydrocarbon that prevents the capacity of hydrogen |
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what are functional groups |
they are groups that contain O, N, F within hydrocarbons they have the power to make the molecule polar or non-polar |
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what is the alcohol class. Draw the general formula |
Hydroxyl group R - OH |
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what is the Aldehyde Class. Draw the general formula |
Carbonyl Group O = R - C -H |
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what is the Ketone Class. Draw the general formula |
Carbonyl Group O = R - C - R |
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what is the Carboxylic Acid Class. Draw the general formula |
Carboxyl Group O = R - C - OH |
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what is the amine Class. Draw the general formula |
amino group -H R-N -H |
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what is the amino acid class. Draw the general formula |
amino and carboxyl group O H = - -H H- O- C -C - N - -H H Carboxyl - Center Carbon - Amino |
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what is another word for carbohydrates and what are some examples of carbohydrates |
saccharides ex. bread, fruit, vegetables, pasta, milk, rice |
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what are the uses of carbohydrates |
short-term energy starch (From plants) and glycogen (from animals = storage of CH) Structural support i.e. cellulose (cell wall) & Chitin (from cell wall fungus, exoskeletons of crustaceans) Cell identifiers and receptors
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what is the general makeup of saccharides |
carbohydrate - hydrate of carbon General form: Cn(H20)n |
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what are monomers |
they are the smallest subunit and the building blocks of polymers |
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what are polymers |
they are long molecular chains with repeating monomers |
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what are the different types of saccharides (sugar) |
- simple sugars - monosaccharides (1) - disaccharides (2) -complex sugars -oligosaccharides (>10) -Polysaccharides (100+) |
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what is the size of monossacharides |
they are sized by the number of carbons within them sizes include triose, tetrose, pentose, hexose and heptose |
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what does "ose" tell me at the end of a word |
it is a sugar |
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What functional groups are found in monosaccharides |
hydroxyl and carbonyl (Aldehyde)
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what type of carbonyl groups are found in saccharides and how do we name them |
aldose and ketose from aldehyde and ketone groups |
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what are isomers |
they are chemicals with the same chemical formulas but make demonstrate themselfs with different bonds or orders |
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what are some common hexoses |
glucose, galactos and fructose |
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what bonds do glucose and galactose have |
alpha bonds in a hex structure |
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what bonds does fructose have |
beta bonds in a penta like structure |
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what are anomeric forms |
they are cyclic compounds that only differs in spacial arrangement this arrangement includes alpha and beta bonds |
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what is an alpha bond |
is it on the bottom in regards to the oh molecule on C #1 this is formed below the plane |
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what is a beta bond |
it is on the top in regards to the OH molecule on C#1 this is formed above the plane humans cannot digest this beta bonds hence we do not have the enzymes to do so |
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what is an anabolic reaction |
it is the makings of a larger molecule from smaller ones |
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what is an example of a anabolic reaction |
dehydration synthesis |
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what is a catabolic reaction |
it is the breaking of large molecules into smaller ones |
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what is an example of a catabolic reaction |
hydrolysis (reindroducing water) |
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what is a glycosidic bond |
it is a bond between 2 carbons to a middle oxygen within a disaccharide this bond can be an alpha bond or a beta bond |
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what are some examples of dissachrides and what are their make up |
sucrose: Glucose + Fructose lactose: Glucose + Galactose Maltose: Glucose + Glucose |
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what is an oligosaccharide |
it is a short chain of sugars that are normally found in fruits vegetables and plants |
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what is an example of a oligosaccharide ? where can they be found? |
insulin and oligosaccharide they can also be receptors on cell membranes |
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what are some benefits of oligosaccharides in the human body |
undigested parts of food can be food for bacteria in the intestines they possibly increase friendly bacteria and reduce harmful they help absorb calcium, lower cholesterol and improve immune systems |
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what are some categories of polysaccharides |
storage polysaccharides structural polusaccharides |
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what do storage polyssacharides do |
store/hold energy Plants - starch animals - glycogen |
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what is the structure of starch called |
amylose meaning linear or amylopectin meaning branched |
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what is the structure of glycogen |
it is similar to amylopectin meaning branched |
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what are some examples of structural polysaccharides |
chitin celluose |
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what are some characteristics about chitin |
found in mushrooms, insect coating it possesses beta bonds its bonds alternate from alpha to beta but is considered beta overall |
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what are some characteristics of cellulose |
it is a beta 1-4 bonds inversion allows the molecules fibers to pack tightly it is tough and insoluble |
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what is the process of glucose regulation |
the levels of glucose are regulated by insultin and glucagon 1. consumption releases insulin, hence high levels of glucose 2. insulin allows the sugar to go into the cells 3. high blood sugar occurs 4. some glucose goes to the liver to be stored as glycogen 5. low blood sugar occurs 6. glucagon released from the pancreas 7. Glucagon makes Glycogen into glucose 8. High blood sugar occurs |
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what are the issues surrounding fructose |
it increases heart disease it increases cholesterol levels it increases blood clotting |
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how is a person lactose intolerant |
lactose the molecule depends on lactase the enzyme to break it down into glucose and galactose lactose intolerance occurs when the person cannot break the bond between the two monosaccharides |
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what are the results of a low carbohydrate diet |
delpetion of glycogen in muscles and liver loses water and decreases bloating dehydration fatigue loss of muscle and skin tone lack of vitamins, minerals and fiber intake due to lack of fruits and vegetables |
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what is the importance of fiber in ones diet |
fiber aids in slowing down the digestive process , keeping blood sugar levels consistant it keeps you regular to avoid constipation effects and absorbs nutrients for your body |
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what are some foods that are high in fiber |
vegetables lettuce broccolli |
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what are some foods that are low in fiber |
bananas, tomatos and squash |
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what are the types of lipids |
fats & oils phospholipids steroids and cholesterol wax |
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what are the uses of lipids |
long-term energy protects the body insulator satiety value: feels full needed to absorb fat soluble vitamins messengers in the cell (hormones) parts of the cell membrane |
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what is the chemical make up of fats & oils |
general triglycerol made up of 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids |
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what functional group is in a glyceral molecule |
a hydroxyl group |
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what functional group is in fatty acids |
a carboxyl group |
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what is the general form of a triglycerol (Draw it!) |
Ester linkage - Dehydration Synthesis - Ketone Carbonyl |
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what part of triglycerol is repellant to water and why |
the general R part of the fatty acids are the part of the triglycerol that is non-polar and repellant to water |
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what are essential fatty acids |
they are fatty acids that the body cannot make we must consume them this includes omega 6 and omega 3 |
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what is the difference between fats and oils |
fats are saturated and are solid at room temperature hence they are compact oils are unsaturated and are liquid at room temperature hence they do not compact |
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what is better for health saturated or unsaturated |
unsaturated |
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what does monounsaturated mean |
there is 1 double bond present |
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what does poluunsaturated mean |
there are 2+ double bonds present |
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what are trans fats |
they are bad for your health because they are unsaturated but appear saturated to the body there is a double bond present within the molecule that usually makes it appear bent but trans fats appear linear |
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how are trans fats made |
they are made by taking a unsaturated fat and saturating it through partial hydrogenation byproducts |
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what is hydrogenation |
hydrogenation is the process of adding hydrogen atoms
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what are the effects of trans fats |
increase in heart disease increase in cancer increase in bad cholesterol (LDL) and lowers good cholesterol (HDL) |
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what is a phospholipid made up of |
a phosphate group: which is a polar (water loving) hydrophilic head a glycerol two fatty acids: which are non-polar (water hating) hydrophobic tails |
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draw a phospholipid |
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what is the orientation of a phospholipid bilayer of the cell membrane |
"Like" attracts "like" Hydrophobic attached to itself hydrophilic head attracted to the polar molecules in the environment |
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what is the chemical structure of steroids |
they consist of 4 fused hydrocarbon rings |
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what is an example of a steroid. what does it create within the body |
cholesterol is a steroid that makes sex hormones |
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what are the different forms of cholesterol |
LDL: Low density lipoprotein (BAD) HDL: high density lipoprotein (GOOD) |
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what are the benefits of cholesterol |
it creates a stable cell membrane derivative of steroid hormones |
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what is the chemical form of waxes |
they are two fatty acids linked to carbon rings or alchohols |
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what are some functions of proteins |
structural: muscle, hair, nails signalling: insulin, growth hormones catalysis (speeding up reactions) : enzymes immunity: antibodies regulation of genes expression poison: Toxins oxygen in blood: hemoglobin |
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What are the Amino acids role in proteins |
they are the units that create proteins. there are 22 amino acids all made up of C, H, O, N, and sometimes P or S |
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are amino acids polar or non-polar by nature |
polar |
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draw the general formula for amino acids (Protein) with the diploids |
Carboxylic acid: d- Amino: d+ |
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what are essential amino acids. how many are there |
they are amino acids the body cannot naturally create on its own there are 8 essential amino acids |
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regarding size, what are the names for some polypeptids |
dipeptid (2) tripeptid (3), polypeptid (4+) |
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what reaction occurs to create a polypeptid |
dehydration synthesis where the opposites attract: i.e. amino + carboxyl
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what does the primary structure of proteins entail |
proteins have 50-5000 amino acids the process of making it is done from a DNA sequence each protein requires a specific sequence |
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what does the secondary structure of protein entail |
due to the amino acid being polar, hydrogen bonds and disulfide bridges cause bending bends occur between amino acid and carboxyl The forms of alpha helices and beta pleated sheets |
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what does the tertiary structure of protein entail |
coils further between the R groups due to covalent bonds, hydrogen bonds and ionic bonds one polypeptide with alpha helixes and beta sheets |
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what does quaternary structure of protein entail |
there is more than one polypeptide sequence example: hemoglobin it is now considered protein |
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what is the supramolecular structure of protein |
it is when many quaternaries are assembled |
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what are the function of antibodies/ how do they work |
they identify foreign material two arms of Y shaped antibodies bind to material stem of AB signals to recruit other immune cells |
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what is protein denaturation |
it is the process of the protein's amino acids unravelling due to harsh environmental conditions |
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what extreme environments could cause protein to denature |
extreme temperatures, pH levels and chemicals |
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what are the effects of high protein diets |
too much in meats missing essential nutrients kidney strain ketosis: ketones from fat metabolize causing acidic blood |
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what is the difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes |
prokaryotes are unicellular eukaryotes are multicellular |
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what organelles are only found in animals |
lysosomes and centrioles |
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what organelles are found in both animal cells and plant cells |
endoplasmic Reticulum golgi apparatus nucleus mitochandria |
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what organelle is specific to plants |
chloroplast |
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what organelles to all living things have in common |
cytoplasm, ribosomes, and a cell membrane |
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what are some characteristics of a prokaryotic cell |
no membrane bound organelles (ex. nucleoid region) they have a cell wall that differs from a plants cell wall ex. bacteria |
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what are autotrophs |
they are organisms that produce their own food ex. chemoautotroph, photoautotroph |
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what are heterotrophs |
they are organisms that rely on consumption of food to survive/gain energy |
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what is the evolution of a eukaryotic cell in short |
1. membrane bound organelles formed by the consumption of a mitochandria/chloroplast type prokaryotes 2. they formed an endosymbiotic relationship |
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what is the ancestrial prokaryotic story |
1. plasma membrane/cytoplasm membrane folded within itself to create the nucleus, nuclear envelope and endoplasmic reticulum i.e. endomembrane system |
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what is the ancestrial host cells story |
aerobic, heterotrophic prokaryote entered the cell by engulfment the prokaryote underwent evolution, becoming what we call the mitochondria some cells engulfed ancestral photosynthetic prokaryotes which later became known as the chloroplast the result was a heterotroph eukaryotes/photosynthetic eukaryote |
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draw a diagram of the animal cell |
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what are the functions of the nucleus and what are the different parts |
it is the control center of the cell -Chromatin: unravelled DNA -Nuclear membrane -Nuclear pores -Nucleoplasm -> liquid in the nucleus Nucleolus -> makes ribosomes |
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What is the function/parts of the endoplasmic reticulum |
it is the packaging center the smooth ER has no ribosomes the rough ER has ribosomes it fold protein molecules it transports synthesized protein in vesicles -it possibly leads to alzheimer's due to having excessive protein in the brain |
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what are the functions/parts of the golgi apparatus |
the trans side is out the cis side is in (Near the nucleus) it helps make/modify and transportation of protein |
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what is the making/modification and transport process of proteins |
1. info to make protein in DNA 2. Ribosomes on RER make primary structure of protein 3. golgi apparatus modifies protein 4. vesicles transport proteins ex. to lysosomes to break stuff down |
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what is the function of lysosomes |
only found in animals it is the trash it can break down food for the cell and can engulf damaged organelles |
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mitochondrion |
it is the powerhouse of the cell it can produce free radicals (elements missing one electron) which will rip anything apart to be neutralized which causes aging |
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what is the function of the centrosomes with centriols |
centrosomes are two centriols together the spindle fibers help in mitosis and meiosis |
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what is the function of microvilli |
they capture nutrients in the small intestine they are made of cytoplasm |
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what are flagelli |
they are long tails |
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what are cillia |
they are short |
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draw the plant cell |
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what is the function of chloroplast |
photosynthesis |
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what types of juntions betweel cells are seen |
tight junctions -stitches/no passing gap junctions -hollow passage ways desmosomes -protein welding |
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what are some characteristic of the cell memembrane |
it is selectivity permeable - certain molecules enter, not all small molecules can go in, but not large ones large molecules can enter the cell through vesicles |
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what are the compoents of the cell membrane |
phospholipids - tightly packed hydrophobic tails with hydrophilic heads which allows small molecules to pass through it protein channels - specific molecules can pass through. ex. polar (water soluble), ions, glucose Protein Cytoskeleton - controls movement of fluid membrane protein a-helixes and glycocalyx - receptors regulate material entry and recognition Cholesterol -controls fluidity of membrane, makes sure the phospholipids dont pack tight or loose |
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draw the fluid mosaic model |
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what does fluid mosaic mean |
fluid - floating mosaic - different parts |
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what does passive transport not require in comparison to active transport |
it does not require ATP |
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what are the different types of passive transport |
diffusion, osmosis and facilitated diffusion |
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what are the characteristics/purpose of diffusion |
high concentration to low concentration (along the concentration gradient) ex. Oxygen, carbon dioxide The goal is to have a net equilibrium |
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what makes diffusion occur faster |
the application of heat |
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what are the characteristics of osmosis and what type of environments can it create |
the diffusion of water across selectively permeable membranes isotonic (Iso meaning same) environment : concentration of solute is the same inside and out hypertonic environment: levels of the solute are higher outside than in causing water to leave the cell hypotonic environment: levels of the solute are are higher inside than out causing water to enter the cell |
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what occurs when extreme hypertonic or hypotonic environments occur |
the cell will shrival up or burst |
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hypotonic environments cause plant/animals cells to become... |
animal: lysed Plant turgid |
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isotonic environments cause plant/animal cells to become |
aminal: normal plants: flaccid |
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hypertonic enviroments cause plant/animal cells to become... |
animal: shrivaled plants: plasmolyzed |
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what is the process of facilitated diffusion |
through protein channels that do not require ATP these protein channels are hydrophilic pathways (Polar molecules welcome) carrier proteins - bind to a specific \solute, changes conformation - receives a specific molecule |
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what are the characteristics of active transportation |
it is from low concentration to high comncentration it requires atp it is the movement of molecules/ions against the gradient it require transport proteins molecules bind to protein and are pumped through |
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what are the different types of active transport |
protein channels (sodium potassium pump) endocytosis exocytosis |
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how does the sodium potassium pump work as a protein channel |
it creates an uneven spread of ions hence it pumps K+ and Na+ across the gradient unevenly |
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what is the general process of endocytosis |
endocytosis pinches a portion of the cell membrane around material the vesicle is transported into the cell the material within the vesicle travels to find destination |
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what are some examples of endocytosis and what are their processes |
1. phagocytosis is the movement of large molecules (or whole cells) into the cell interior. Ex. macrophage 2. pinocytosis is used for extracellular fluid absorption in small vesicles 3. receptor mediated endocytosis which is like fly paper in the sense were the proteins attach to the receptors, the membrane pinches when enough has gathered and create a vesicle. ex. LDL cholesterol receptors |
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what is the process of exocytosis |
opposite to endocytosis transports large molecules requires ATP ex. insulin is produced in the pancreatic cells and travels through the rest of the body by exocytosis |
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how many different types of enzymes are there |
4000 different types |
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what are the purposes of enzymes |
1. biological catalysts: they speed up the rate of chemical reactions 2. they lower activation energy |
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what are enzymes made out of |
protein |
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Are enzymes specific to molecules |
yes, they provide surface area to reactants (substrates)...isomers make a difference |
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what is an exothermic reaction |
it is the release of energy in a net reaction products have less energy than reactants activation energy is minimized amount of energy to break bonds of reactants |
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what is an endothermic reactants |
it is when energy is absorbed in the net reaction the products have more potential energy than reactants |
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what were the different beliefs (models/theories) about enzymes |
Lock & Key model -old and disproven induced-fit theory - enzymes are flexible and can conform to allow the active site to be able to fit the substrate |
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what are some factors that can denature enzymes |
pH temperature radiation mutation toxins/poisons temporary inhibition |
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what is competitive inhabition |
inhibitor attaches to the active site to cause the substrate to not bond with the enzyme it stops/slows down the reaction solution: increase substrate concentration or make more enzymes |
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what is non-competitive inhibition |
it is when the inhibitor attaches to the allosteric site which causes the enzyme to change shape. this means the substrate can no longer bond to the active site |
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what is allosteric regulation Negative feedback control |
non-competitive inhibition is not always a bad thing when enough product is produced, the product will go back and inhibit its own production |
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what is the definition of metabolism |
it is all the chemical reactions occuring in the organism anabolic + catabolic = metabolic |
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what is the definition of anabolism |
the chemical reactions that require energy to make new chemical bonds |
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what is the definition of catabolim |
the chemical reactions that release engery to break bonds |
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what is the definition of energy |
the capacity to do work measured in Joules or Calories |
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what are some examples of energy |
kinetic engery and potential energy |
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what is the first law of thermodynamics |
the first law states that energy can never be created or destroyed energy can only be converted from form to form energy In= energy Out |
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what is the second law of thermodynamics |
entropy, S, or disroder/randomness is constantly increasing in the universe every energy conversion has useful energy become unusable which increases entropy in the universe |
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what is enthalpy |
enthalpy (H) is heat content of a substance delta H overall heat change in enthalpy reaction the universe favors chaos and disorder which is spontaneous |
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what is an exothermic reaction |
Ethanlpy is negative hence it is releasing energy |
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what is a endothermic reaction |
Ethanlpy is positive hence it is absorbing energy |
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what are spontaneous reactions |
Reactions that will continue to occur on its own once it stares Ex. Fire |
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what is a non-spontaneous reaction |
a reaction that requires constant input of energy ex. boiling |
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What is Gibbs Free Energy |
free energy is energy that is available to do work and is given the symbol G |
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what is the equation for gibbs free energy |
Delta G= Delta H - T x Delta S |
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what are the different outcomes for gibbs free energy in regards to spontaneous reactions and releasing energy |
If gibbs free energy is negative, it is spontaneous and exergonic If gibbs free energy is positive, it is not spontaneous and endergonic if gibbs free energy is neutral, it means the reaction is at an equilibrium |
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What is the equation for cell respiration and what are the general characteristics of this reactions |
CO2 + H2O + energy Gibbs free energy is negative it is exergonic it is spontaneous it increases entropy |
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what is the equation for photosynthesis and what are the general characteristics of this reaction |
CO2 + H2O + energy -> C6H12O6 + 02 Gibbs free energy is positive it is endergonic it is not spontaneous it decreases entropy |
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do all living things complete cell respiration and photosynthesis |
all living things complete cell respiration only autotraphs complete photosynthesis |
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what is the make up of ATP |
Adenosine triphosphate it is made up of adenine, ribose and 3 phosphate molecules |
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what is the make up of ADP |
it only has 2 phosphate groups opposed to 3 that ATP has it as adenine and ribose as well |
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how does ATP become ADP chemically |
Hydrolysis reaction is the chopping of 1 of the phosphate groups off of ATP, causing an exergonic reaction |
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What is a Phosphorylation Reactions |
it is the adding of a phosphate group to ADP through dehydration synthesis causing an endergonic reaction |
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what drives endergonic reactions |
reactions that are exergonic in the environment |
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what are the redox reactions |
oxidation reaction: loss of electron/proton Reduction reaction: gain of electron/proton Oxidizing agent: the molecule gaining the electron Reduction agent: the molecule that is losing the electron |
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when do we use endergonic/exergonic vs oxidation/reduction |
endergonic/exergonic : for ATP oxidation/Reduction: anything else that can gain/lose electrons |
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what is the summary of cellular respiration |
1. glycolysis (Anaerobic) Glucose -> 2 Pyruvate occurs in cytoplasm yields 2 ATP molecules and 2 NADH 2. Citric Acid Cycle/Pyruvate Oxidation/Kreb Cycle (Aerobic) 2 pyruvate -> 6CO2 occurs in the mitochondria yields 2 ATP, 8 NADPH and 2FADH2 3. Oxidative Phosphorylation (Aerobic) occurs in mitochondria Uses NADH & FADH2 to make tons of ATP |
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what are the steps of glycolysis |
1. ATP breaks down 2. Glucose takes energy 3. ATP breaks down 4. Fructose takes energy 5. Fructose breaks down to 2 molecules which look the same 6. A proton from G3P is given to NAD+, making NADH (Oxidation) 7. ADP has an endergonic reaction by taking a phosphate group 8. H2O comes out 9. ADP has an endergonic reaction taking a phosphate group 10. 2 pyruvate are made |
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what are the steps to the citric acid cycle |
it is in the matrix of the mitochondria 1. pyruvate enters via transport protein (a 3 carbon molecule) 2. CO2 leaves, Oxidation 3. NAD+ turns top NADH, reduction 4. Coenzyme A attaches to Pyruvate (a two carbon molecule) 5. Acetyl CoA enters the Krebs Cycle 6. Enzyme Leaves Pyruvate oxidizes going from a 2 carbon molecule (paired with a 4 carbon molecule) to a 4 carbon molecule in total, 3 CO2 are made |
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what is substrate level phosphorelation |
it is when an enzyme directly creates ATP by using ADP and a phosphate group as substrates |
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what is chemiosmosis |
it is the movement of H+ ions through ATP synthase driving the creation of ATP |
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draw the mitochondria |
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what is oxidative phosphorylation |
it is the electron transport chain which is a type of chemiosmosis |
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what is the purpose of oxidative phosphorylation |
it generates a lot of ATP it recycles NAD+ and FAD it gets rid of potentially harmful oxygen (Free radical, avoiding harm) |
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what is the role of photosynthesis |
produces O2 produces Glucose for heterotrophs and autotrophs decreases CO2 from environment |
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what are the different parts of photosythesis |
1. the Light Dependent Reaction 2. The Calvin Cycle |
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What is the light dependent reaction summary |
it uses sunlight energy to release electroms from water and produces O2 NADP+ accepts electrons NADOH energy is released to create ATP |
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what is the summary of the Calvin Cycle |
with or without light uses ATP and NADPH to help fix CO2 into C6H12O6 |
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what is the structure of the chloroplast |
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where does the light dependent reaction occur and where does the Calvin Cycle occur |
Light Dependent reaction occurs in the Thylakoids The Calvin Cycle occurs in the Stroma |
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What are the steps to the Light Dependent Reaction |
1. photon strikes photosystem 2 and excites the pigments. Energy is transferred to chlorophyll a P680 which drives the reaction of water splitting 2. PQ takes the electron from the Primary Electron Acceptor and accepts a proton from the stroma to become neutral 3. PC will steal the electron from PQ, the proton will be "dropped" into the lumen 4. Photon strikes Photosystem 1 and excites the pigments. Energy is transferred to chlorophyll a P700. P700 gets electron from PC after its electron was stolen by PEA 5. Ferredoxin steals the electron from PEA 6. NADP+ rectase will take the electron from Ferrodoxin and give it to NADP+ -> NADPH+ steps 1-5 happen twice 7. Protons diffuse through ATP synthase to make ATP |
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What are the steps to cyclic phosphorylation |
1. FD will donate the electron to PQ and passes it to PC. H+ is pumped through the lumen 2. PC will pass electron to Photosystem 1 |
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what is important about cyclic phosphorylation |
you dont need water you dont need photosystem 2 you make ATP you dont make NADPH |
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from where to where are protons diffused via ATP synthase
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photosynthesis Lumen to stroma cellrespiration intermembrane to matrix |
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what is the purpose of the calvin cycle |
to fix CO2 into C6H12O6 in 3 stages |
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where does the calcin cycle occur |
the stroma |
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what are the steps to the calvin cycle |
1. fix CO2 CO2 + RuBP -> 6PGA using the enzyme rubisco 2. add energy and reduce PGA into G3P ATP exer ADP NADPH oxid NADP PGA Reduce 1,3 BPGA 1,3 BPGA red G3P 3. regenerate RuBP 5 G3P gain energy from ATP to turn into 3 RuBP |
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what is homostasis |
it is the maintence of the internal conditions of the body |
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what does the endocrine system do |
influences almost every organ, cell, and function in the body |
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what are hormones |
they are chemical messengers that are released from a cell to have an effect on another target cell |
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what is the process of thermoregulation |
Stimulus is feeling hot thermostat in hypothalamus activates cooling mechanism skin blood vessels dilate to release heat sweat glands activate (cooling body) body temperature decrease thermostat shuts off cooling mechanisms Stimulus is feeling cold thermostat in hypothalamus activates warming mechanisms skin blood vessels constrict reducing heat lose skeletal muscles activate to shiver blood temperature increases Thermostat shuts off warming mechanism |
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what is a general homostasis response |
1. stimulus produces change in variable (imbalance) 2. change detected by receptor 3. input info sent along afferent pathway to control center 4. output info sent along efferent pathway to effector 5. response of effector feeds back to influence magnitude of stimulus and returns variable to homeostasis |
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what types of horomes are there |
steroid hormones and Peptide hormones |
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what are steroid hormones |
ex. cortisol they all contain cholesterol they are all lipid soluble molecules they enter the cell via phospholipid bilayer these hormones go into the cell directly into the nucleus |
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what are peptide hormones |
they are known as protein hormones they bind to receptors and stay outside the cell the receptor activates and causes a chain reaction |
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what are exocrine glands |
they are gland that release hormones into ducts external part or cavity ex. salivary gland |
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what is an endocrine gland |
it is a gland that releases hormones directly into vascular system they affect target cells that are nearby |
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what are some examples of endocrine glands |
pineal, hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals, pancreas, overies and testes |
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what does the pineal gland do |
percieves light/external clock |
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what does the pituitary gland do |
it is the master gland |
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what does the hypothalamus do |
it secreates hormones that stimulate synthesis/secreation of hormones in pituitary |
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characteristics of the pituitary |
anterior pituitary - front posterior pituitary - back The Hypothalamus makes Posterior pituitary Hormones Anterior pituitary makes/stores its own hormones Posterior pituitary only has oxytocin and vasopressin (ADH) |
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what does oxytocin do |
it controls muscle contractions it is an example of positive feedback - release more it is an example of negative feedback - release less |
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what are endorphins and enkephalins |
they are natural pain killers |
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what are endorphines |
they resemble opiates they are responsible for runners high |
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what are enkephalin |
they are responsible for the sense of wellbeing |
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what hormones does the thyroid gland make and what do they do |
thyroxine - controls cellular metabolism and calcitonin - calcium regulation |
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what is the process that thyroxine undergoes |
receptor - cold exposure Hypothalamus releases TRH Anterior Pituitary releases TSH Thyroid Thyroxine T3 is active, which T4 is inactive T4 will activate to become T3 which speeds up metabolism rates T4 means 4 iodine |
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what is the parathryoid glands |
they are four glands in the thyroid that are hormone producers |
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what does PTH do and what creates it |
the parathyroid creates it it causes calcium levels to increase and phosphate levels to decrease |
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how does calcium get regulated in the body |
too much Ca2+ thyroid releases calcitonin hormone Ca2+ deposits into bones reduces Ca2+ uptake in intestines reduced Ca2+ uptake in kidneys not enough Ca2+ thyroid releases parathyroid hormone increases the uptake of Ca2+ in kidneys increases the uptake of Ca2+ in intestines simulates Ca2+ release from bones |
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how is sugar regulated in the body |
high levels of glucose -beta cells of pancreas will stimulate and release insulin -body cells take in more glucose, liver take up more glucose and stores it as glycogen -insulin diminishes Low levels of glucose -Alpha cells in the pancreas release glycagon -the liver breaks down glycogen into glucose glucagon diminishes |
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what is type 1 diabetes |
it is the lack of insulin produced also known as diabetes mellitus |
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what is type 2 diabetes |
it is when the glucose isnt entering the cells also known as diabetes mellitus |
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what is diabetes insipidus |
it is when you pee all the time (nothing to do with insultin) also known as tasteless urine lacking ADH |
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what is diabetes mellitus |
it is known as sweet urine hence their is glucose found in the urine |
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what are the adrenal glands known for making |
the hormone cortisol - stress aldosterone - sodium levels testosterone |
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what is the hormone that is responsible for creating male gentalia |
anti-mullerian |
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what three parts make up the kidneys |
the cortex - the medulla the renal pelvis |
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what are the different parts of the nephron |
1. Glomerulus 9not a part of the nephron) 2. Bowmen's capsule 3. proximal tubule 4.loop of Henle 5. distal tubule 6. collecting duct
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what processes occur in the nephron |
Filtration fluids from blood move into the bowmen's capsule "filtrate" is the result in the bowmen's capsule Reabsorption Transfer of essential solutes and H2O from filtrate in nephron back into blood capillaries Secretion moving materials from blood back into nephron |
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what is the difference between urea, ammonia and uric acid |
ammonia is extremely toxic and is secreted in large amounts urea is less toxic. therefore it requires less water. uric acid needs very little water but more energy is required to produce it |
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label the neuron |
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