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262 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is the main function of the GI tract?
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To bring nutrients into the internal environment so the body can use it for growth and energy
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Where does the GI tract start and end?
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Starts in the mouth and ends in the anus
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What must occur before chemical digestion?
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Mechanical digestion
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What organs are in the gut tube?
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Oesophagus, Stomach, Duodenum, Jejunum, ileum, Large intestine, Rectum and the anal canal.
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What are the outgrowths of the GI tract?
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Salivary glans, liver, pancreas, gall bladder and the appendi
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What 4 physiological processes are involved in the GI tract?
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Motility, Secretion, Digestion and Absorbtion
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What are the 3 patterns of muscle movement that contributes to digestion and absorbtion?
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Peristalsis, segmentation and sphincters
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What 3 substances are secreted in the GI tract?
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Mucous, enzymes and hormones which are essential for digestion
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What are the 2 processes of digestion?
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Mechanical (motility) and chemical digestion (secretion of fluid/enzymes) that allows the breakdown of food for absorption.
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Describe absorption
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Transporting material from intestinal lumen into the body
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Where does absorbtion occur?
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Small intestine and Large intestine
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In terms of diegestion what is the difference between the small intestine and the large intestine?
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The small intestine absorbs nutrients + salt and water. The large intestine absorbs salt and water
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What 2 nervous systems regulates these physiological processes?
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Enteric Nervous system and Central Nervous system.
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What 3 things regulate the physiological processes?
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The nervous system, hormones and the receptor cells lining the epithelium
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What is the main difference between the ENS and CNS?
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The ENS is the primary system that controls the GI tract (stomach). But it is overridden by the CNS and can modulate the activity of the CNS.
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What is the mesentary?
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It’s a double fold of peritoneal tissue that is attached to the abdominal wall to hold the intestines in place and prevents it from tangling. It is moist and slippery.
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What is the peritoneum?
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Is a continuous serous membrane that is simple squamous epithelium that lines the intestine and body wall. Moist and slippery
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Define the peritoneal cavity?
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A space formed when the parietal and visceral layers of the eritoneum spread apart.
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What connects the body wall to the organ in the GI tract?
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Mesentary
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What is always beneath a epithelium membrane?
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FCT
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Describe the omentum
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A fold of peritoneum which connects or supports abdominal structures.
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What connects organ to organ in the GI tract?
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Omentum
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What is the difference between the lesser omentum and greater omentum?
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Lesser=part of peritoneum attaching liver to stomach Greater=part of peritoneum attaching to the stomach and the colon
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Where is the retroperitoneal found?
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Behind the peritoneum
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What are the 3 arteries supplying the abdominal viscera?
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Celiac trunk, superior mesenteric and the inferior mesenteric.
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Where does the celiac trunk supply in the gut?
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Foregut
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Where does the superior mesenteric artery supply in the gut?
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Midgut
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Where does the inferior mesenteric artery supply in the gut?
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Hindgut
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What does the celiac trunk branch into?
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Left gastric, splenic and common hepatic
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What does the left gastric supply?
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Stomach, lower oesophagus and liver
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What does the splenic supply?
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Stomach, pancreas and the spleen
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What does the common hepatic supply?
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Liver, pyloric stomach, pancreas and duodenum
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What does the superior mesenteric branch into?
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Colic arteries, intestinal arteries and ileocolic artery
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What does the colic artery supply?
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Ascencind transverse Colon
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What do the intestinal arteries supply?
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Ileum and Jejunum
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What does the ileocolic artery supply?
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Ileum, cecum and appendix
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What does the inferior mesenteric branch into?
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Left colic artery, sigmoid artery and superior rectal artery.
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What does the left colic artery supply?
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Descending colon
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What does the sigmoid artery supply?
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Sigmoid colon
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What does the superior rectal canal artery supply?
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Rectum and Anal canal
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Describe what can happens in the hepatic portal circulation
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Can go from the capillaries into the veins then into the capillaries then back into the veins (in liver) then into the inferior vena cava.
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What are the 4 types of tissues in the GI tract?
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Epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous tissue
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3 functions of epithelial tissue in the GI tract?
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Covers/protects the body surface. Lines the cavities and systems open to the air. For absorption and secretion
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2 functions of connective tissues in the GI tract?
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Strength and adhesion of epithelia. There’s always FCT under epithelial cells
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What is the function of muscle tissues and where is it found in the GI tract?
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For movement and is found in the sphincters
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What is the function of nervous tissues and where is it found in the GI tract?
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It is used for control and is found in the Enteric Nervous system
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What are the 4 shapes of epithelial cells?
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Squamous, Cuboidal and Columnar and stratified squamous.
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Where in the GI tract are simple sqaumous epithelial tissue found?
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Peritoneum/peritoneal membrane
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Where in the GI tract are simple cuboidal epithelial tissue found?
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Salivary gland and pancreas. These areas secrete substance
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Where in the GI tract are simple columnar epithelial tissue found?
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In the lining of the small intestine
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Where in the GI tract are stratified sqaumous epithelial tissue found?
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In the lining of the oesophagus because its highly protective
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Describe a mucous secreting cell
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It has apical mucous granules, basal nucleus, columnar and is goblet shaped. Found mostly in the intestine
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What are multicellular glands?
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Means all cells in that area are secretory. Can be either compound which has 2 or more ducts or simple which has a single duct.
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Difference between tubular and compound multicellular glands
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Compound is complex and has lots of bending to increase surface area as there are more cells. Compound is found in the salivary glands whereas tubular is found in the stomach and large intestine.
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How many layers are in the gut tube?
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There are 4 layers stays at four layers but is modified along its length.
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What are the 4 layers of the tubular portion of the GI tract?
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Mucosa, Submucosa, Muscularis and Adventitia
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What layer appears to be part of the gut tube but isnt?
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Serous membrane, it is a covering not a layer
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What muscle type is the Adventitia, submucosa and Lamina propia made out of?
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It is made out of FCT
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What 2 muscles are involved in peristalsis in the gut tube?
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Circular and longitudinal muscle
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Describe the pathway of food entering the GI tract in the mouth
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Enters the fauces into the oropharynx then into the oesophagus. Mechanical digestion is in the mouth
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What are the 3 salivary glands?
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Parotid, Submandibular and Sublingual.
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What are the differences between the 3 salivary glands?
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Parotid glands has serous cells only. Sublingual has Mucous cells only and submandibular has both mucous and serous cells
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What the types of cell junctions found in the epithelium of the GI tube?
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Desmosomes, Gap junctions and tight junctions
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What type of epithelium is found in the oesophagus?
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Mucosa lines the epithelium as it is protective. Releases mucous to line it
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Why do we need to modify the gut tube?
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For storage, mechanical digestion and chemical digestion
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How many layers are in the stomach?
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4 layers
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What is the rugae?
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Are anatomical folds/wrinkles for the viscera. Used for expansion and contains the mucosa and submucosa. In the stomach
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Is the mucosa of the stomach wall modified? If so why/why not?
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Yes. It is modified for secretion of mucous, enzymes, acid and hormones.
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How is the stomach wall modified?
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There is extensive infolding which forms pits and glands
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What are the 4 types of gastric gland cells in the stomach wall?
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Mucous neck cell, Chief cell, Parietal cell and Endocrine cell.
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What do chief cells secrete?
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Enzymes
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What do parietal cells secrete?
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Hydrochloric acid
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What is the difference between a resting parietal cell and an active parietal cell?
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Resting parietal cell has a small surface area, lots of vesicles and protein channels. Active parietal cells has a large surface area as it has many microvilli.
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What is a canaliculus?
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Channel in parietal cells
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Describe the smooth muscle found in the stomach
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It undergoes slow contraction and doesn’t fatigue. Has a basal tone and gap junctions which link the cells and is electrically coupled
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What happens to the food as it leaves the stomach?
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It becomes very acidic and needs to be neutralised
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Where is the pancreas found?
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In the c-shaped duodenum and found between the tail of the duodenum to the spleen behind the stomach
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What duct does the pancreas contain?
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It contains the Cystic duct which extends into the duodenal lumen
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What type of gland is the pancreas?
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It is a secretory gland.
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What is the purpose of the pancreas?
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Manufactures digestive enzymes and releases glucagon or insulin
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What are the 2 secretory units?
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Exocrine and Endocrine
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What do the Acinar cells produce?
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Enzymes
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What do the Duct cells produce?
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Bicarbonate
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What is an Acinus?
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Is a group of secretory cells
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What is the Endocrine pancreas?
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They involve islet cells which contain the endocrine cells which are alpha, beta and gamma cells.
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What is the difference between Endocrine and exocrine?
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Endocrine secretes into the blood instead of into ducts . Exocrine secretes into ducts.
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What is the function of the endocrine pancreas?
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For glucose homeostasis
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What 2 plexus’s are found in the GI tract?
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Submucosal plexus and Myenteric Plexus
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What role does the Submucosal plexus play?
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Regulation of secretion
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What role does the Myenteric plexus play?
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Regulation of motility
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Define motility in the GI tract
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It is the movement from the mouth to the anus
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What are the 4 functions of motility in the GI tract?
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Movement at a controlled rate, Mechanical digestion, mixing with chemicals and exposure to absorptive surfaces
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What muscle types are found in the GI tract for motility?
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Smooth muscles mainly. But Skeletal muscles in the mouth and both skeletal and smooth in the oesophagus
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Explain what is meant by the GI smooth muscle is spontaneously active
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It means that it contracts without nervous input/external input so does not need brains to send signals for it to move
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Describe the basic electrical rhythm in the spontaneous activity?
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There are spontaneous variations in membrane potential which produces action potentials and results in contractions.
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What does the Basic electrical rhythm determine?
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It determines the frequency of contractions
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How can you alter the strength of contraction?
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By either depolarizing or repolairsing the resting membrane potential
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What are the 2 types of motility patterns in the GI tract?
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Peristalsis and Segmentation
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Which nervous system coordinates muscles to generate motility patterns?
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Enteric Nervous system
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Where does the Fasting motility pattern occur initially?
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In the stomach then to the small intestine and large intestine.
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What are the 3 periods of Fasting motility pattern?
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Inactivity, intermittent activity and intense activity.
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When does the Fasting motility pattern occur after eating?
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4-5 hours
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Describe the motility pattern of storage
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It occurs in the stomach and depends on the relaxation of smooth muscle
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Describe the motility pattern of peristalsis
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It moves food quickly from one place to another and occurs in the oesophagus, stomach and the small & large intestine. It undergoes propulsive movement
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Where is peristalsis found?
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Oesophagus, stomach and the small & large intestine
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Where is segmentation found?
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Small and large intestine. It involves the mixing of food
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Describe the process of segmentation
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It is found in the large and small intestine. Mixes enzymes with food and exposes to absorptive surfaces
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How do you create a pressure gradient in peristalsis?
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We constrict the tube behind the bolus which causes a –ve gradient at the front and +ve at the back
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Does segmentation involve propulsion?
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No as the bolus only travels a short distance
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What is the function of motility in the mouth?
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It reduces the size of food, mixes the food with saliva and is for tasting
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What is special about saliva?
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It has digestive enzymes and mucus to allow easy movement and salivary amylase for breakdown of carbs
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What type of muscle is found in the motility component of the mouth?
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Voluntary skeletal muscle
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What is the function of swallowing?
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To allow the rapid transfer of material from the mouth to the stomach.
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What is needed for us to swallow fast and why do we swallow fast?
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We need a pressure gradient and needs to be rapid because we use the same pathway for air
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What are the 3 stages of swallowing?
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Oral, Pharyngeal and oesophageal. =Voluntary control
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What initiates receptive relaxation in the stomach?
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Swallowing which is a nerve reflex
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What is receptive relaxation in the stomach?
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It is when the stomach increases in volume without increasing the pressure
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What does the receptive relaxation in the stomach rely on?
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Gastric smooth muscle
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Desscribe the movement of peristalsis in the stomach
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The first 60min is gentle activity. 60-300 minutes is intense activity
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What is produced under intense activity in the stomach?
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Gastrin which are the products of digestion and stimulates contraction and causes it to be stronger as it is released into the blood stream
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What is retropulsion in the stomach?
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The stomach combines with the pyloric sphincter to undergo retropulsion. Which involves mixing and chemical digestion
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What is chyme?
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It is the partially digested food mixture that leaves the stomach for the duodenum.
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Which volume is greater, the stomach or the duodenum?
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Stomach
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What controls what, the stomach or the duodenum?
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Duodenum
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What changes the rate of emptying food from stomach into the duodenum?
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The composition of food. Whether solid or liquid or high calorie or low calorie
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What is released into the blood when the duodenum detects chyme?
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The hormone, Gastric inhibitory peptide
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What are the 2 functions of the small intestine
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Chemical digestion of food and absorption of nutrients, salts and water.
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What is absorbed in the small intestine?
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Nutrients, salt and water
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What are the 2 motility patterns in the small intestine?
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Fasting (migrating motor complex) and Feeding (segmentation and peristalsis)
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What are the 2 functions of the large intestine?
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Storage of faeces. Regulation of salt and water content of the faeces
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What are the motility patterns of the large intestine?
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Inactivity, segmentation and mass movements
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What are the functions of exocrine secretion?
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Digests food, dilute food, maintains optimal pH and for protection and lubrication
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Difference between exocrine and endocrine secretion?
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Exocrine are secretions onto the body surface whereas endocrine are secretions into the body
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What are the main components of exocrine secretion?
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Enzymes, mucus and electrolyte solution
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What are the 3 glands that secrete saliva?
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Parotid, submandibular and sublingual
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What do the acinar cells secrete?
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Isotonic serous solution
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What are the 2 stages of making saliva?
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The acinar cells secrete isotonic serous solution and is reabsorbed in the duct to make hypotonic saliva
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What is the volume of salive secreted daily?
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1.5L
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What is the composition of salive?
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Mucus, dilute NaHCO3/NaCl, enzymes (amylase and lipase)
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What can cause the release of saliva?
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The thought, smell and sight of food
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What are the functions of saliva?
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Lubrication, Hygiene and digestion
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What is the volume of gastric secretions daily?
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2-3 Litres
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What are the main gastric secretions?
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Hydrochloric acid, mucus, pepsinogen and intrinsic factor
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What is pepsin?
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It is the thing that breaks down proteins. However it is secreted as pepsinogen
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Why is pepsin secreted as pepsinogen?
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It is inactivated as it is secreted and don’t want it to harm the GI tract.
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What are the functions of gastric acid?
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Denatures proteins, activates pepsinogen into pepsin as it is the optimum pH, protection from microbes and it also dilutes food.
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What are the cells on the surface of the stomach?
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Mucus goblet cells
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What are the cells in the glands called?
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Chief cells and Parietal cells
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What do Chief cells secrete?
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Pepsinogen
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What do Parietal cells secrete?
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Acid and intrinsic factor. Hydrochloric acid
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What type of pump is found in the parietal cells?
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H+-K+ pump which is found next to the lumen
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What are the 3 phases of gastric secretion?
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Cephalic phase, Gastric phase and the intestinal phase.
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What is the cephalic phase?
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Head controls secretions. It prepares the body for digestion.
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What is the stimulus for the cephalic phase?
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Thought, smell, sight etc. Chewing actions
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What the Gastric phase?
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Stomach control secretion.
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What nervous system controls the gastric phase?
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Parasympathetic NS which integrates with the ENS
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What does the Parasympathetic nervous system stimulate in the stomach?
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Parietal cells and gastrin production
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What is the intestinal phase?
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When the intestine regulates secretion, it controls the amount of acid delivered to the small intestine.
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What are the stimulus of the intestinal phase?
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Distension of the duodenum. Arrival of acid and products of digestion in the duodenum
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What are the responses to the stimuli in the intestinal phase?
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When the duodenum is stimulated it releases GIP, CCK and secretin and inhibits secretion. There is also a enterogastric reflex which also inhibits secretion
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In the pancreas what type of cells releases enzymes?
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Acinar Cells
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What do the ducts of the pancreas release?
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Alkaline fluid
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What are the 2 pancreatic secretions?
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Enzymes and Alkaline fluid
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What types of food do the enzymes secreted by the acinar cells act on?
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All classes
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What are the 3 types of enzymes classes secreted by the acinar cells?
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Lipolytic, amylytic and proteolytic
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What are the functions for the enzymes secreted by the acinar cells?
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To chemically digest food.
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What are proteolytic enzymes secreted as out of the pancreas?
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Inactive precursors
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Why are enzymes secreted as inactive precusors?
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To prevent degradation before acting on the food
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What is the precursor for Trypsin?
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Trypsinogen
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What is the precursor for Chymotrypsin?
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Chymotrypsinogen
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In the small intestine what converts trypsinogen into trypsin?
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Enterokinase
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What are the functions for (HCO3) Bicarbonate solution in ducts of the GI tract?
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Neuturalise the chime and creates optimum pH for pancreatic and intestinal enzymes
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What produces CCK?
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Duodenal endocrine cells in response to digestive products in the lumen
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What does CCK stimulate?
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Enzyme secretion by acinar cells
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What produces secretin?
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Duodenal endocrine cells in response to increasd [H+] in the lumen
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What does secretin stimulate?
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HCO3 secretion by duct cells
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What does bile do?
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Neutralises chime, breaks down fats and absorbtion and it is also secreted.
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What releases HCO3?
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Duct cells
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What organ secretes cholesterol?
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The Liver
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What are the 3 things found in bile?
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HCO3, bile salts and lecithin and bile pigments
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Where is bile stored?
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In the Gall bladder
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What happens to the bile when food is present?
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Transported into the small intestine
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What does the products of digestion stimulate in relation to bile?
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Stimulates CCK production
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What are the 2 secretions of the small intestine?
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Mucus and NaHCO3
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What is the role of mucus secretion in the small intestine?
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For lubrication to protect the epithelial cells
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What is the role of NaHCO3?
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Neutralise the food and dilutes it
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What is the secretion of the large intestine?
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Mucus for lubrication
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What are the 4 layers of the Small intestine wall?
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Mucosa, submucosa, muscularis and adventitia
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What 2 processes occur in the small intestine?
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Digestion and absorption
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Describe digestion in the small intestine?
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Has digestive enzymes, is well protected and also has hormones.
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Where do the enzymes come from in the small intestine?
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Pancreas
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Why does the small intestine have to maintain a correct pH?
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Because the chyme that leaves the stomach is acidic and can cause damage to the lining
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How is the small intestine protected?
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It has mucous secreting cells and has mucous glands in the duodenum.
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Where are hormones secreted in the small intestine?
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Via the absorptive epithelial cells
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What is chyme?
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It is partially digested food that leaves the stomach and enters the small intestine
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What is the pH of chyme?
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2
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What does the duodenum secrete and what is the signficance of it?
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It secretes CCK which raises the pH
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How do you neutralize the pH of chyme in the small intestine?
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Pancreatic bicarbonate
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Describe the inner surface of the small intestine
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It has leaf like projections which are the plicae circulares
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What 2 layers form the plicae circulares?
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Submucosa and overlying mucosa
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What is the plicae circulares?
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Is the inner surface of the small intestine
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How would you increase surface area of mucosa covering the submucosal layer?
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Folding it
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What is the villus of the small intestine?
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They are small finger-like projections of the lamina propia (FCT) and is covered in epithelium
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What type of layer is found at the base of the villi?
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Muscularis mucosa
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What are the 2 functions of the epithelium found at villi?
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Absorption and protection
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What are the 3 types of cells found in the small intestine?
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Secretory cells, endocrine cells and progenitor cells
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What do the secretory cells secrete in the small intestine?
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They secrete enzymes through paneth cells
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What do endocrine cells secrete in the small intestine?
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Hormones
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What do progenitor cells do in the small intestine?
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They are stem cells and give rise to all cell types that are required
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What is the core of the villus made out of?
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It is made up out of FCT (lamina propia), capillaries and lacteals
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Where can you find the gylcocalyx?
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On the microvillus plasma membrane
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What is the gylcocalyx made out of?
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Glycoprotein coat
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What type of digestion, contact or luminal, occurs on the microvillus plasma membrane?
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Contact digestion
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Where can you find the brush border enzymes?
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On the microvillus plasma membrane
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Is there a junctional complex found in the lumen of the small intestine?
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Yes. There are desmosomes, tight junctions and gap junctions.
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Where is the hepatic flexure found?
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Under the liver
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Where is the splenic flexure found?
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Under the spleen
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What is the Taenial Coli?
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Are 3 longitudinal smooth muscle on the ascending, descending, sigmoid and transverse colons. It runs the length of the large intestine
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What is another name for the large intestine?
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Colon
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What are the 4 types of colon?
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Ascending, descending, transverse and sigmoid
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Where can you find the cecum?
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Proximal blind end of the ascending colon
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What type of tube/lumen empties into the cecum?
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Ileum
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What is the valve called that is between the cecum and ileum?
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Ileocecal valve
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What is the vermiform appendix?
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Is a tubular with a blind end attached to the cecum. The tip of it floats in the peritoneal cavity it is like a hanging worm
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What does the cecum lead onto?
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The Ascending colon
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Which colon extends from the Ascending colon?
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The Transverse colon
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Which colon extends from the transverse colon?
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Descending Colon
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Which colon extends from the Descending colon?
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Sigmoid Colon
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What extends from the sigmoid colon?
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The rectum
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What is special about the transverse colon compared to other colons?
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It is loose and hanging free
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What is the ampulla in the rectum?
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Dilated middle part
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What is the Greater Omentum?
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Is like a 4 layered apron of peritoneum that is fused. It is attached to the greater curvature of the stomach and folds down over the abdominal contents
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What is the mesentary called for the appendix, transverse colon and and sigmoid colon?
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Mesoappendix, transverse mesocolon and sigmoid colon.
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Which parts of the large intestine are retroperitoneal?
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Ascending, descending, rectum and anal canal.
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Doees the cecum have a mesentary?
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No, It is loose and hanging free
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What is the taenia of cecum?
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It is a band of longitudinal muscle and forms a pouch like appearance in the large intestine
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What is the function of the Vermiform appendix?
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It has the same bacteria as in the large intestine and acts as a reserve of bacteria incase we flush a lot of the bacteria out of the large intestine.
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What is the haustra of the large intestine?
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They are small pouches of the colon caused by sacculation, which give the colon its segmented appearance.
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What are the Appendices epiploicae for?
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Fat storage in the small intestine
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What are the 4 layersof the colon?
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Mucosa, Submucosa, Muscularis and Adventitia.
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What things make up the Mucosa layer in the large intestine?
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Epithelium, Lamina Propia that is FCT and Muscularis mucosa.
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What are the functions for the simple tubular glands of the large intestine?
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For water and salt absorption
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Describe the epithelium of the simple tubular glands of the small
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It has a mucosa layer hence it must have mucous glands that secrete mucus
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Describe the position of the sigmoid colon
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It takes the large intestine into the midline
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What is the function of the sigmoid colon?
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It stores waste products
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What type of epithelium lines the rectum?
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Columnar epithelium that secretes mucus. This makes the faeces slippery
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What is the significance of the rectal valves?
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It allows us to hold in faeces in without excreting.
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What is the internal hemmoridal plexus and what happens if it is damaged??
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It has lots of veins and if damaged we may get a haemorrage
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Describe the muscle in the sphincter
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It switches from smooth muscle to skeletal muscle
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Descrive the Anal sinus?
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It has extra mucous cells to secrete mucous
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What muscle type is the internal sphincter made out of?
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Smooth Muscle
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What muscle type is the external sphincter made out of?
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Skeletal muscle, nerve fibres innervate this so we can open/close the sphincter
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What happens to the internal and external sphincters when the rectum is empty?
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The internal sphincters contract while the external sphincters relax
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What happens to the internal and external sphincters when the rectum is full?
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The internal sphincters relax while the external sphincters contract
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What happens to the sphincters during defecation?
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The internal and external sphincters relax
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What causes defecation?
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Pressure from the contraction of the GI tract and abdominal muscles
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What does the liver deliver into?
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It delivers into the duodenum, delivering the bild that it produces to store in the duodenum
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Where is bile produced and stored?
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Produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder
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What cells in the liver make the bile?
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Hepatocyte
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What is the bile canniluculus?
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It is a tube that collects bile from the hepatocytes
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What is the bile duct?
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The duct that conveys bile from the liver and the gall bladder to the duodenum
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List the 3 main cellular structures of the liver
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Has hepatocytes, sinusoids between the rows and bile canniculi between the cells.
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