Geology Final Exam

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Angular unconformity

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horizontal layers are deposited on top of tilled or folded layers

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Non conformity

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sedimentary layers deposited on top of igneous/metamorphic rocks

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Disconformity

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Sedimentary layers with time missing

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Reservoir rocks

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have high porosity and high permeability. Example of this is sandstone

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Seal rocks

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have low permeability and low porosity, Example of this is shale rock.

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Anticlinal trap

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Arch shaped folds

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Salt domes trap

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lots of layers of salt that are far below surface of Earth. Oil reserves are stored in these

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Surface mining

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heating rocks greater than 500 degrees to distill off the oil.

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Steam assisted gravity

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-extracts bitumen through thermal production in subsurface

-uses horizontal well pair

-steam reduces bitumen viscosity

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Hydraulic Fracturing

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-method to extract natural gas and oil from oil shale

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Hydraulic Fracturing

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1.) pumps water and chemicals/sand into well to increase pore pressure

2.) causes fracturing; sand holds fractures open

3.) oil and gas is extracted

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Coal

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-fromed from plant material--> swamps mashes and costal plains

-form at temps greater than 100 degrees

-more widely distributed than oil and gas

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Acid Rain

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-coal in Eastern US has higher sulfur concentraion

-SO4 and NO3 react with water in Atmosphere to form surfuric acid/nitric acid

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Particulate pollution

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smog; increased heavy metals (mercury)

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Global warming

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-variability comes from different estimates of future CO2 emissions

-1-6 degree increase by 2100 and 4 ft sea level rise

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Acid Mine Drainage

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-yellow boy

-oxidation of FeS

-lowers pH

-precipitates Fe-Hydroxides

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Carbon sequestration

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-inject supercritical CO2 into permeable rock layers

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Weathering

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the breakdown of exposed rock into smallfragments and dissolved ions

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Transport

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Grains become rounded primarily during this

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Erosion

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The removal of detritus (rock fragments) from an outcrop is called

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Clastic

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Broken down rock fragments eventually form which type of sediments and rocks

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Biochemical

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Cemented shells of marine organisms form which type of sediments and rocks

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Diagenesis and lithificaion

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compaction and cementation of grains occurs during

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Diagenesis

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The physical and chemical alteration of rocks that occurs as sediment transformed into a rock is called

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River bed

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A well-sorted sandstone with asymmetric ripples was most likely deposited as sand where

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Sedimentary basins, broad depressions that catch sediments

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The thickest sequences of sedimentary rocks are typically found in-

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DELTS

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which is NOT a continental sedimentary environment

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physical weathering

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The breakdown of rocks by a mechanical process is called

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Symmetric ripples

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Which of the following features are you most likely to find in a former beach environment

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Sharp, U-shaped

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Compared to steam modified terrain, a glacially modified terrain has ____ mountain profiles and ____ valleys

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Reflecting incoming solar radiation

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A high albedo surface does a good job or what

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Kettle

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A glacial feature that is formed when a retreating glacier leaves a piece of ice that melts and forms a pond

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Striations

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Grooves on exposed bedrock that formed from rocks dragged along the base base of glaciers are called

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When temperatures drop, sea levels fall and the oceans become more saline

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Which of the following relationships best explain the link between global sea level and polar ice extent?

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Snow/ ice covered surfaces

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The surfaces that reflect the most incoming solar radiation are

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Cirque

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Which of the following erosional landforms displays steep walls and a flat base at the head of a glacial valley?

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Outwash

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glacial drift that has been sorted and distributed by meltwater

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till

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poorly sorted and unstratified sediment associated with glaciers

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Groundwater

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Water that has percolated through the Earth's surface and is stored underground is referred to as

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FALSE

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groundwater reserves are smaller in volume than surface water in the United states.

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plant growth feedback

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What is an example of a negative feedback loop?

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unusually warm weathers in the eastern pacific ocean

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El nino

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FALSE

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Ice core and ocean sediment cores are anaylyzed for the oxygen isotopic compositions to estimated tempeature in the past

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100,000 years periodically

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Eccentricity is approximately

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40,000 years periodically

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Axial tilt

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Cone of depression will result

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A body of groundwater that is well connected and easily transmitted to the surface by pumping is called an aquifer. If the aquifer is pumped faster than it is recharged.

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Installing a more powerful pump

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which of the following is the least effective in combating the effects of a declining water table?

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Dissolution

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by what chemical process do carbonate minerals, the primary constituents of limestone weather?

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it requires dry climates

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which of the following about karst topography is false

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TCE

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What chemical migrates to the bottom of aquifers due to density driven flow

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True

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Groundwater can flow upward against gravity

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TRUE

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a spring is the surface manifestation of the water table

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Divides

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Drainage basins are seperated by

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False

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Meandering streams usually form in areas with a higher gradient than braided streams

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High gradient of river

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Which of the following does not contribute to the flooding in the Red River of North Dakota and Minnesota

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Lateral continuity

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If the rock type and fossil content of twobodies of rock on opposite sides of a canyon are identical, then theseremaining outcrops were likely physically connected at one time and formed partof an extensive layer of rock. This idea summarizes the principle of

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angular unconformity

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Flat-lying sedimentary rocks deposited on top oftilted sedimentary rock layers, likely an erosional surface between the twosections is an example of

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2 billion years

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If the half-life of a radioactive isotope is 1 billion years, and wedetermine that one-fourth (1/4) of this radioactive isotope is in an unaltered(unreacted) state in a particular sample, the age of the sample would beapproximately-

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Weathering

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is the breakdown ofrocks into fragments and dissolved ions, does not involve movement.

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Erosion

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is the moving of weathered fragmentsaway from the rock from air, water, or ice.

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Chemical weathering

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is the breakdown of rocks by chemical processes, carbonation is an example

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Erosion

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Is the moving of weathered fragments away from the rock from the air, water, or ice

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Diagenesis

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lithifies sediments into rocks

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Sedimentary basins

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are broad depressions where sediment collects, this produces thick sequences of sediments up to 15km deep

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Crossbeds

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-form from running water, as the water flows it creates bedforms, such as ripples or dunes on the floor of a channel.

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Bedding

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layers of sedimentary rocks

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Ripples

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Cm scale ridges and troughs there are asymmetric ones that are like sand dunes and rivers.

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Assymetric ripples

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like sand dunes and rivers

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like lakes and oceans

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Symmetric ripples

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Clastic

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consist of rock fragments

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biochemical

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consist of shell or skeletal material

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chemical

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prepcipitate out of solution

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organic

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coal

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Troposphere

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is about 10 km up to20, this includes the clouds and is known as the “weather layer.”

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Stratosphere

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is up to 50 km and isthe “drier layer”

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Hydrosphere

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is all the water notfrozen on/in earth. (thermohaline circulation)

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cryosphere

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contains ice components (glacialbudget).

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the greenhouse effect

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this is the effect ofatmospheric gases like carbon dioxide absorbing energy from the sun and earthand trapping it near the Earth’s surface, warming the Earth to a temperaturerange that is hospitable for life

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CO2 and methane

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greenhouse gases

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is the fraction ofsolar energy that is reflected

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albedo

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Positive feedback loops

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change in one component enhances another. Thisamplifys. This is an example of albedo

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Albedo feedback loop

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Temp rise--> caps melts--> decreases albedo-->temp rises

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Normal Albedo

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warm western pacific and cold eastern pacific. winds move from east to west. The western pacific has lots of rain

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El nino

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warm eastern pacific and cold western pacific, effects trade winds, wet Eastern pacific like Southern

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La nina

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colder pacific temps and stronger trade winds

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Thermohaline circulation (THC)

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is a part of thelarge-scale ocean circulation that is driven by global density gradientscreated by surface heat and freshwater fluxes.

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20th century warming

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warming correlates with increasing CO2from industrial revolutions emissionsàfossil fuels. The mean surface temp is 0.6-0.8 degrees higher. The 20thcentury is abnormal compared with climate variation over the last millennium. Cisotopes also have a distinctive signature from burning fossil fuels.

Front 88

This is known from the marines on edges

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-How do we know how far south the Wisconsin glaciation has reached

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Striations

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groove in exposedrock (rock surface) from debris (rock) on the bottom of the glacier-this is howyou can tell the glacier movement direction.

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Cirque

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looks like invertedcone, steep walls, flat valleys- this is the head of valley.

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Horns

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exposures/ peaksabove glacier level

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U-shaped valley

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steep walls, broad,rounded valley.

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Arete

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narrow ridge betweentwo cirques

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Hanging valley

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from a tributaryglacier, not as deep as main glacier

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Fjord

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flooded, glacialvalley-usually along the coastline.

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Erratics

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large boulders, outof place

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Tills

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unconsolidatedsediment that is poorly sorted (clay to boulders)

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Moraine

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-accumulations of rocky sand at the edges or ends of glaciers

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Drumlins

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large stream linedhills parallel to ice flow

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Esker

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long, narrow ridge of sand and gravel that have tunnels of meltwater

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Outwash

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sortedglacial drift that is sorted by meltwater and has broad plains

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kettle

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hallows or undraweddepression that is commonly found by ponds or lakes.

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Erratic, tills, moraines, and drumlins

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Which glacial deposits are formed by ice

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-WisconsinGlaciation happened about 75,000-11,000 years ago

-last glacial maximumwas about 21,000 years ago -multiple glacialevents-4 -increased land exposure -warming and coolingperiods, O isotopes, low ratio=cooler period

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Wisconsin Glaciation history

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lauventideice sheet-> edge -glaciations and icefree periods -oldest till about600,000 years old -SE corners of MN-no ice

--Wadena, Rainy,superior, and Des Moines are common glacial lobes

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Minnesota Glaciation history

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Precession

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happens about every24,000 years and is a wobble of the pole due to equatorial bulge.

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Axial Tilt

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happens about every41,000 years and is an axial tilt of rotation from 22-24 degrees; moons orbitalpath.

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Eccentricity

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100,000 years and iselliptical path of earth.

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Rain shadows

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-occur on large mountain ranges, an example of this is cascades.

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Waterusage- Energy (50%), Agriculture (35%), Public (11%), Industry (5%). Humans useabout 250 liters per day.

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Water usage

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Reservoirs

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theseare large storage areas that include dams and wetlands, storage can occur innatural lakes, artificial reservoirs, and wetlands. In natural lakes, theyabsorb short-term flows during major precipitation and release it slowly tohelp control flooding.

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Porosity

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spaceavailable within a rock for water

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Permeability

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ability for solidto allow fluid to flow through it.

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confined aquifiers

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prevent local infiltration of water, these can be rechargedonly from recharge area

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unconfined aquiers

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surface water is free to infiltrate to a aquifier and assistrecharge.

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Artesian wells

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drilled into confinedaquifier and water moves towards surface without pumping.

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Karst

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this is irregular terrain that has sink holes, springs anddisappearing streams. Acidic groundwater will chemically weather and dissolveslimestone (CACO3). In minnesota in the southeast there is a mystery cave.

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includes microbes andfor iron barriers uses phosphorous from detergents.

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Cleanup for bioremediation

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Leachate

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liquid rich in medals and chemical solvents

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Gasoline

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a biological pollutant- chemicals such as industrial benzeneand TCE which is an industrial solvent.

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Drainage basin

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where all water from ice, snow, or ice converges into a single point at alower elevation, usually the exit of the basin.

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Divides

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are the elevatedboundary between areas that are drained by different river systems.

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braided streams

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have a chaotic paternand high velocity and high discharge they also have a high gradient and highsediment load

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Meandering stream

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low gradient, lowslope, low velocity, and lower sediment load

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Oxbow lake

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remnant river meander forms duringmajor flooding

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Red River Flooding

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flows from south to north. The springthaw and discharge are aligned. Ice jam again from south to north flow. Flatlandà Glacial lake Agassiz. It decreases in gradient downstream.

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original horizontality

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layers of sediment/rock are depositedhorizontal or parallel to Earth’s surface.

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lateral continuity

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rock layers extend in all directionsuntil the edge of their areaàlikely to appear on both sides of a canyon.

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cross-cutting

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igneous intrusion like a dike or afault that cross cuts rock layers is younger than the rock layers.

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Inclusions

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rock fragments are older than the rockthey are within.