Geology

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4 spheres

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Geosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere

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The geosphere consists of three major layers.

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Crust, mantle, core

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Crust

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Composed of granite and basalt

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Core

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Contains a solid inner sphere and an outer liquid layer

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Asthensophere

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In the upper mantle is 250 km thick. The rocks are hot, soft, and partially melted.

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Lithosphere

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Includes all of the crusts and the uppermost part of the mantle. 100 km in thickness. It also contains tectonic lithospheric plates.

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Oceans

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Cover 71% of the earth's surface and contain 97.5% of its water

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What percent of earth's total water is underground?

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.63%

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What percent of earth's total water is is surface water?

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.01%

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The four major components of earth's atmosphere

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Atmosphere .001% of earth's water

N²-78%

O²-21%

Ar-.09%

CO²-.04%

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Father of Modern Geology

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James Hutton

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Uniformitarianism

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Principle stating that the geologic processes active in the past are the same processes active today.

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Threshold effect

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Initial environment changes occur slowly in response to small disturbances until a threshold is crossed, after which additional small disturbances can cause rapid and dramatic changes.

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Feedback mechanism

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Occurs when a small initial disturbance affects another component of the system, which amplifies the original effect disturbing the system more, and on and on.

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5 characteristics all minerals must possess.

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Solid, definite chemical composition, naturally occurring, inorganic, crystalline structure

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Fundamental components of matter that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical processes.

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Elements

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Most minerals are composed of how many elements?

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2-5

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How many minerals are known?

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5200

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Specific gravity

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The density of a mineral relative to an equal volume of water.

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Commercially important non metallic minerals, like barite, ate called?

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Industrial minerals

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Ore minerals

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Source of valuable metallic element

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92% of the earth's crust is composed of?

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Silicate minerals

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The 2 most abundant minerals in earth's crust are?

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Feldspars and quartz

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The basic building block of all silicate minerals is the?..? Which every silicon atom surrounds itself with ?...? Oxygen atoms.

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Silicate tetrahedron.... 4

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Limestone and dolostone are formed from 2 different ?...? minerals, calcite and dolomite.

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Carbonate

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Both?...? and oxides are common ore minerals.

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Sulfides

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Texture

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Defines the size shape and arrangement of igneous mineral grains in a rock.

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Composition

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Refers to what minerals a rock is composed of.

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Igneous rock form by?

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Cooling and crystallization of magma

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Igneous rocks that form from magma that cools slowly within the earth's crust are...?

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Intrusive

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Common intrusive igneous rocks.

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Granite, diorite, gabbro, paradite

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Igneous rocks that form from magma that cools quickly above the earth's surface are called...?

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Extrusive

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Common extrusive igneous rocks?

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Basalt and ryholite

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What volcanic rock is a natural glass?

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Obsidian

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Sedimentary rocks form by the??? And the??? Of sediments.

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Accumulation and lithification

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2 processes by which lithification occur are?

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Compaction and cementation

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2 main types of sedimentary rocks, depending on origin.

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Clastic and non-clastic

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Clastic sedimentary rocks are classified on the basis of?

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Grain size

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What percent of all sedimentary rocks are clastic?

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80%

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Classic sedimentary rocks

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Conglomerates, breccia, sandstone, and siltstone.

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2 most common carbonate rocks

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Limestone and dolostone

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Different types of limestone

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Micrite, sparite, coquina, fossiliferous, oolitic

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Explain how carbonate rocks are related to climate.

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Carbon is precipitated from calcium and the formation of carbonated rocks causes cooling climate.

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2 types of metamorphism

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Contact and regional

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How does contact metamorphism occur?

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High temps and chemical action of fluids associated with intrusion.

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4 foliated metamorphic rocks

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Chlorite, Acasta gneiss, Morton gneiss

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2 common non-foliated metamorphic rocks.

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Quartzite, marble, metaconglomerate

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The all time worst mass extinction in which 90% of all species became extinct.

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Permian

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Dinosaurs became extinct at the end of what period?

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Cretaccous/ paleocene

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Relative age dating

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The order in which the rocks formed or geologic events occurred

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Actual age dating

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Age of rocks or geological events measured in years.

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Original horizontality

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Sedimentary rocks form in flat layers

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Fossil succession

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Rocks with the same fossils are the same age

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An unconformity

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A surface of erosion within a sequence of rocks that indicates an interruption of deposition of the rock record.

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3 kinds of unconformities

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Nonconformity, Angular, disconformity

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Correlation

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Matching rocks of similar type or age from different locations

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Index fossils

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Fossils used to accurately determine the relative age of a rock.

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Radiometric age dating

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Actual age dating technique which the age formation of a rock or mineral can be determined by using the radioactive decay of naturally occurring isotopes.

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Isotopes

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Atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

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The rate of decay for any radioactive isotope is always?

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Constant

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Half life

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Time required for one half of the atoms of a given amount of a radioactive isotope to decay

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The first 4 billion years of earth's history.

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Precambrian

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Which eon did fossils first become common?

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Phanerozoic