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131 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
According to primary, secondary, tertiary or quaternary activities, what is geographical division of labor?
- national, regional, locally based economic specializations that have evolved with the growth of the worlds system of trade & politics, exploitation of environmental resources, and the locational needs of successive technology systems
What happens when an a countries economy is dominated by primary sector activities?
They have a relatively low GDP (with the exception of oil rich nations like Saudi Arabia)
What economies are associated with having the highest per capita GDP?
Economies that are post- industrial, where tertiary and quaternary sectors dominate the workforce
what does geographical division of labor help us do?
The overall relationship between economic structure and levels of prosperity helps to interpret economic development in terms of 'stages'
What are the stages of economic development?
- heavy reliance on primary activities, relatively low levels of prosperity to...
- Industrialism, to...
- a 'mature' stage of post industrial development, resulting in a diversified economic structure, & high levels of prosperity
Explain the traditional approach to economic growth
- consumes renewable and non-renewable resources
- treats environment as a free good
uses environment to absorb pollution
- considers any economic action a cost
- regards 'place' as a location
- regards 'space' only in economic terms
Explain the new approach to economic growth
- reduce/reuse/recycle renewable/non-renewable resources
- prices the use of environment
- costs the price of pollution
- considers the environment before business proceedings
- regards 'place' as a locus of interconnections at the global, regional, and local scales
- regards 'space' as the arena in which those interconnections take place
What are the successive stages of economic development?
-Traditional society: limited tech, static society, transition triggered by external influences
- Preconditions for take-off: commercial exploitation of agriculture and extractive industry; installation of physical infrastructure, emergence of social/political elite
- Take-off: Development of a manufacturing sector; investment in manufacturing exceeds 10% of nations income, development of modern social, economic, and political institutions
- Drive to Maturity: Development of wider industrial and commercial base; exploitation of comparative advantages in international trade
- High Mass Consumption
Where are secondary economic activities taking place?
- South America: The Sao Paulo region; w/ < 25% of Brazil's pop. accounts for 40% of industrial production b/c of automobiles and chemicals
- North America: the upper mid west US manufacturing belt
- Asia: Kansai region rich in pharmaceuticals; Shanghai; Taipei rich resulting from image scanners, computer mice, monitors; Bangkok because of automobile production; Bangalore in India booming because of telecommunications, computers and defense research
- South Africa: manufacturing sector employs 1.4 mill, accounts for nearly 25% of countries GDP
- Europe: NW Germany b/c of coal mines, steel mills
What are the principles of commercial and industrial location?
- importance of accessibility to material inputs
- importance of availability to labor w/ skills
- importance of processing costs i.e. capital, wages/salaries, utility bills, taxes
- pull of the market of P/S; depends on proximity to customers
- transfer costs accrued at alternative locations i.e. transporting inputs/outputs, insuring, storing, etc..
- influence of cultural and institutional factors, i.e. gov't policies
- influence of behavioral considerations stem from objectives & constraints of individual
What is the most appreciated contribution geographers have made to the study of agriculture?
The mapping of different factors that shape agriculture:
- soil, temperature, terrain, areal distribution of different types of agriculture
What is one of the most dramatic changes in agriculture?
The decline in the number of people employed in farming in both the core and periphery
How has the practice of farming changed?
The integration of chemical, mechanical, and biotechnological innovations and applications
How has agriculture changed?
It has become increasingly integrated into wider regional, national, and global economic systems, and linked to manufacturing and finance.
What kind of repercussions have the changes in agriculture had on society?
Repercussions range from the structure of global finance to social relations of individual households
What does the term 'Agrarian' mean?
It refers to the culture of agricultural communities and the type of tenure (landholding) system that determines access to land and the kind of cultivation practices employed there
What does agrarian refer to?
It describes the way of life that is deeply embedded in the demands of agriculture production.
- refers to the type of tenure system that determines who has access to land and what kind of cultivation practices will be employed there
Define agriculture.
A science, art, and a business directed at the cultivation of crops and the raising of livestock for sustenance and profit
Explain hunting and gathering.
Activities whereby people feed themselves through killing wild animals and fish, and gathering fruits, roots, nuts, and other edible plants
What are two important and generalized points recognized by geographers regarding hunting and gathering?
1. Indigenous people's small population had little impact on the environment
2. It is a great mistake nomadic hunters and gatherers have no attachment to place (needed to know the land in order to survive)
What contributed to diseases within the hunting and gathering group?
Lack of nutrition= anemia
Exposure to animals= domestication of animals, influenza, smallpox
Explain subsistence agriculture.
Farming for direct consumption b the producers, not for sale.
Replaced hunting and gathering when people started to understand that the domestication of plants/animals meant they didn't have to continually travel for their means
Explain commercial agriculture.
Farming primarily for sale, not for direct consumption.
Why is subsistence agriculture disappearing around the world?
Most places around the world are irresistibly incorporated into a globalized economy relying substantially on commercial agriculture.
What are the three forms of subsistence agriculture?
Shifting cultivation
Intense subsistence agriculture
Pastoralism
What is 'Shifting cultivation'?
A system in which farmers aim to maintain soil fertility by rotating the fields within which cultivation occurs
Explain crop rotation.
A method of maintaining soil fertility in which the fields under cultivation remain the same but the crops being planted are changed
This is to balance the nutrients withdrawn and delivered to the soil
Where does 'Shifting cultivation' occur?
Primarily in the tropics: especially the rain forests of Central and West Africa, the Amazon, SE Asia
What are the different methods of Shifting Cultivation?
Slash and Burn: resulting in Swidden (the land)
Relies on huge amounts of human labor
Old cites are abandoned when nutrients are diminished
What kind of crops are grown using Shifting Cultivation?
Sweet potatoes/yams
Grains- corn, rice
What is interillage?
Practice of mixing different seeds and seedlings in the same swidden
Used in Shifting cultivation
Planting of crops is staggered so there is a constant supply of crops through out the year
Mimics the actual patterns in the rain forest and protects the soil from leaching and erosion
How do men and women divide the work during shifting cultivation?
Men: responsible for the initial tasks of clearing away vegetation, cutting down trees, burning the remaining stumps

Women: sowing seeds and harvesting the crops
What are the limitations of Shifting cultivation?
Can only provide food for a small population: if population increases then the cite has to be moved further outside the village, expending energy while traveling
Negative effect on the environment
Why is shifting cultivation an appropriate response to a fragile landscape?
The burning of stumps makes soil more workable
Seeding can proceed with minimum efforts
Requires no expensive inputs: no fertilizers, pesticides/herbicides or heavy equipment
Staggering sowing allows for food production throughout the year
Explain Intensive subsistence agriculture.
Practice that involves the effective and efficient use- usually through a considerable expenditure of human labor and application of fertilizer of a small parcel of land in order to max. crop yield
Can support large rural populations
Reflects high agricultural density
Where does intensive subsistence agriculture usually occur?
In regions of the world with the largest population, namely Asia, ESPECIALLY India, China SE Asia
What does intensive subsistence agriculture include?
Fairly constant human labor in order to achieve high productivity from small amounts of land
What does intensive subsistence agriculture reflect?
The ability of humans to deal with pressures from large populations and small amounts of land and confront environmental constraints and reshape the landscape
Explain Pastoralism.
Subsistence activity that involves the breeding and herding of animals to satisfy the human needs of food, shelter, and clothing.
Where is pastoralism usually practiced?
Cold and dry climates of deserts, savannas (grasslands), steppes (lightly wooded grassy plains), where subsistence agriculture is impracticable
-Parts of North America
- Savannas of central and southern Africa
- Middle East
- Central Asia
What are the two types of pastoralism?
Sedentary: pastoralists live in settlements and herd animals in nearby pastures

Nomadic: pastoralists wander with their herds over long distances, never settling in one place for long
What is commercial pastoralism?
The regularized herding of animals for profitable meat production
Found in the Basque Americans in the basin, Utah & Nevada, gauchos in Argentinian Grasslands
What animals are usually pasteurized?
Cattle
Sheep
Goats
Camels
Reindeer in Eurasia
Types of animals herded is related to the culture and the animals adaptability to the regional topography & foraging conditions
What is Transhumance?
The movement of herds according to seasonal rhythms: warmer, lowland areas in the winter & cooler, highland areas in the summer
What is the difference between shifting cultivation & sedentary agriculture, and patterns of annual cropping and 'multi-cropping'?
The frequency with which the land itself is cultivated.
How was the first agricultural revolution recognized as founded?
The development of agriculture and the use of plow and animals
When did the first agricultural revolution occur?
10-15,000 years ago
Explain what happened during the first agricultural revolution.
- The emergence of seed agriculture through the domestication of crops i.e. wheat/rice & animals i.e. sheep/goats all replaced hunting and gathering as a way of life and sustaining
What are the major topics under debate when regarding the second agricultural revolution?
- Dramatic improvement in outputs (for example, crop and livestock yields)
- Importance of innovations (replacement of ox by horse, introduction of new crops i.e. potatoes and turnips)
- New inputs to agricultural production (application of fertilizer and field drainage)
What is a safe assumption about the second agricultural revolution?
The second agricultural revolution was historically and geographically associated with the Industrial revolution in England and Western Europe
Further discuss the parallels between the industrial revolution and the agricultural revolution.
The industrial revolution had a great impact of the agricultural revolution due to the demand for food from a growing urban and industrial population
What were most peasants using before the industrial revolution for agriculture cultivation?
Crop-rotating; with fertilizers and fallow crops, soil productivity increased which led to crop and livestock yields to increase
What happened when the feudal landholding system broke down?
A new agrarian system, based not on service to a lord, but a private property system, leading to individually owned land worked on by tenants or renters
What was the most important change brought on by the industrial and agricultural revolution?
The development of a commercial market for food
- the improvement of transportation technology, such as horse drawn farm machinery helped crop yields
When did the third agricultural revolution occur?
The late 19c, gaining momentum throughout the 20c
What profoundly shaped the third agricultural revolution?
Technological innovations had virtually industrialized agricultural practices
What are the three phases of the third agricultural revolution?
Mechanization
Chemical farming with synthetic fertilizers
globally widespread food manufacturing
What is Mechanization?
The replacement of human farm labor with machines, i.e. tractors, reapers, pickers, etc.... Mechanization didn't become widespread in Europe till after WW2
What is Chemical farming?
The application of synthetic fertilizers to the soil and herbicides, fungicides, and pesticides to crops in order to enhance yields
Who was considered to be the first political geographer?
Aristotle
What did the pioneer political geographers theorize?
The state operated cyclically and organically
What are the two important traditions within the wider discipline of geography?
People-land tradition
Environmental determinism
Hugely influenced by Charles Darwin
What is geopolitics?
The state's power to control space or territory and shape the foreign policy of individual states and international political relations
What were Friedrich Ratzel's (1844-1904) metaphor that describes the growth and development of the state, and laws of growth?
1. The territory of the state grows with the expansion of the population having the same culture
2. Territorial growth follows other aspects of development
3. A state grows by absorbing smaller units
4. The frontier is the peripheral organ of the state that reflects the strength and growth of the state; not permanent
5. States in the course of their growth seek to absorb politically valuable territory
6. The impetus for growth comes to a primitive state from a more highly developed civilization
7. The trend towards territorial growth is contagious and increases in the process of transmission
How does Ratzel's model portray the state?
As behaving like a biological organism; thus it growth and change are seen as natural and inevitable.
- He firmly believes that geopolitics stem from the interaction of power and territory
What might be said about the changing map of Europe post WW1?
It can be linked to Ratzel's model, that power and territory are the root of geopolitics
- 'the fluidity of maps reflects the instability of power and territory'
What is the significance of boundaries?
They allow territoriality to be defined and enforced; they allow conflict and competition to be managed and channeled. Hence boundaries are an important element in place making
Why are boundaries constructed?
Regulate and control certain specific sets of people and resources
Boundaries can be exclusionary: National boundaries control the amount of immigrants crossing borders
Boundaries tend to reinforce spatial differentiation
What is a territory?
The delimited area over which a state exercises control and that is recognized by other states
What are the different kinds of boundaries?
- Informal, implied boundaries, never delineated on maps ex. turf of city gang
- Formal, with some degree of permeability ex. EU states
- Impermeable, ex. East and West Germany
- Formal, established by international law
how are boundaries formed?
Formal boundaries tend to follow natural boundaries, i.e. rivers, mountains, oceans ex. France & Spain, Great Lakes separating Canada and US
Why is the State so profound?
It is one of the most powerful institutions, cultivating the process of globalization
The state effectively regulates, supports, and legitimates the globalization of the economy
What is a state?
An independent political unit with recognized boundaries
What is a Nation?
A group of people often sharing common elements of culture, such as religion or language, or a history or political identity
Explain the term nation-state.
An ideal form consisting of a homogeneous group of people governed by their own state
In a true nation-state, no significant group exists that is not part of the own state
What is sovereignty?
The exercise of state power over people and territory, recognized by other states and codified by international law
How do medieval and current sovereignty differ?
During medieval times, ones loyalty was towards one person rather than to the state as it is now
What is the problem with focusing ones loyalty to one person, like that of medieval times?
- Kingdoms need not comprise discrete units
- Sovereignty was vested in the ruler's person
Explain the 'Enlightenment'
An 18c European movement that sought to replace ideas of authority or explanation drawn from God with those that individual humans could establish through their own reason
What two events in history sparked change in people perspectives?
- The American Declaration of Independence (1776)
- The French Revolution (1789)

Both of these events led to the replacement of the inheritance of power of the ruler with that of the ppl
What was the result of The Declaration of Independence and the French Revolution?
Once the power was given to the people, a link was forged between the area of which the people lived and the space in which they exercised their sovereign power
How does the Nation-State promote itself?
1. To ensure that all the people included within the existing boundaries of the state were of one nation and exclude those who were defined as non-members of that particular nation
2. Adjust the state's spatial boundaries so they could encompass all those defined as a nation
What is Centripetal Forces?
Forces that integrate the state
Include:
- cultural, economic, political, regional factors used to integrate the state
What are Centrifugal Forces?
Forces that can lead to the disintegration of the state
What is Nationalism?
The feeling of belonging to a nation as well as the belief that a nation has a natural right to determine its own affairs
What is imperialism?
The extension of state authority over the political and economic lives of other territories
What is the history of imperialism?
- Over the past 500 years, Imperialism has resulted in the political and economic domination of strong core states over weaker states in the periphery
- it is not a formal gov't, but it can involve using military pressure, economic sanctions, or cultural domination
- Imperialism involves some sort of authoritative control of one state over another
What are the phases of imperialism?
1. The core exploits the periphery for raw materials
2. The periphery becomes developed (colonization may occur) & cash economies are introduced
3. Periphery may become a market for the manufactured goods produced by the core
- An example of this would be Africa under European imperial rule
How does colonialism differ from imperialism?
Colonialism involves formal establishment and maintenance of rule by sovereign power over a foreign population through the establishment of settlements i.e. European power over Indigenous people in North America
- Colonies don't have an independent standing within the world system but are adjunct of the colonizing power
What when colonialism at the height of its popularity?
From the early 15-20c colonialism was an important component of core expansion
What were the core colonizing states?
Britain, Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, and France
What are examples of not accomplishing political dominance by the colonizer?
When Britain set up colonies in China, it did not succeed in imposing British administrative or legal structure within China
Canada US and New Zealand were all colonies at one time but are now core states themselves
Who would be considered semi-periphery states?
Brazil and Mexico have come close to but not fully achieved core status
When did Britain become a presence in India?
With the establishment of the East Indian Trading Company in the mid 18c
- Factories in Mumbai, Chennai, and Calcutta, resulting in a full blown military, administrative, and economic presence by the British gov't which did not end until Indian Independence in 1947
What kind of influence did Britain have on Indian way of life?
In the 200 years under British rule, Indian population was brutalized, killed, and their society was transformed by British Influence, translating into their language, judicial system, railroad construction, & cultural identity
What are some important facts of post-colonialism India?
- in 1947 Pakistan split from India and became a separate Muslim state
- in 1971 Bangladesh which was previously part of Pakistan declared independence
- radical movements in the states of Kashmir and Punjab
- decades of violence between Muslims and Hindus over religious beliefs and the privileging of Hindus over Muslims in the nations culture and economy
What are the major social classes in Hinduism?
Brahmin
Kshatriya
Vaisya
Sudra
Explain the Rwanda civil war.
When Belgium left Rwanda, it left colonially created tribal rivalries unresolved and seething.
Originally, the Tutsi were allowed special treatment i.e. education and bureaucracy
- Tutsi were formally cattle herders and the Hutu were agriculturalists, Belgians organized it so that the Tutsi were the more dominant tribe Belgium flip flopped between sides until its departure in 1962, in the 1994 civil war 500,000 Tutsi died, the Hutu were driven to the Congo and a Tutsi lead government was formed
- The civil war was later deemed a 'Genocide'
- The Tutsi government invaded the Hutu camps and released over 1 million refugees who fled all across central Africa
- the current situation in Africa is incredibly insecure
What is the North-South Divide?
The differentiation made between the colonizing states of the Northern Hemisphere and the formally colonized states of the Southern Hemisphere
- The relationship between the North and South was one of dependence of the peripheral (south) and core (north)
- very few peripheral countries are economically competitive with the core countries since achieving political autonomy
- the periphery is very dependent on the economy of the core
Who was part of the Southern Hemisphere?
Africa, South America, parts of the Pacific, Asia, etc..
Who were part of the imperialist Northern Hemisphere?
Europe, the US, Russia, and Japan
What is Decolonization?
The acquisition of control by colonized peoples over their territory
When did most colonies become independent?
Post WW1, after which the League of Nations was designed to assess the possibilities for independence of colonies and that the process occurred in an orderly fashion
What colonies were decentralized due to the League of Nations i.e. the colonial mandate system
Africa, South and Central America, Asia and the South Pacific during the 20c
What was the downside of the League of Nations?
Although it was able to dismantle minor disputes, it was unable to prevent aggression by major powers and dissolved itself in 1946, however it served as a model for the UN
What is contract farming?
When agricultural farming in periphery countries is organized for core consumption
Core countries dictate the conditions of production of specified agricultural commodities to growers in the periphery. No matter the commodity there are standards set for production
Who were the European countries that had the most presence in Africa?
Britain, France, Belgium
What is neo-colonialism?
The domination of peripheral states by core states not by direct political intervention but by economic and cultural influences and control
How has the spread of capitalism changed traditional societies?
It has modernized traditional societies through education, health care, etc.
It has also negatively affected societies, because of imperialism and colonialism there has been a great deal of bloodshed and deaths.
How did early geographers dictate the actions of imperial countries?
It began with exploration; expeditions were intended to evaluate the possibility of resource extraction, colonization, and the expansion of an empire
Organizations such as the royal geographical societies of England & Scotland helped with expansions
Explain the expansion efforts towards Antarctica in the 20c
No one country owns the continent; 15 countries lay claim to territory and have established research stations:
- Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Chile, China, France, Germany, India, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, United Kingdom, US, Uruguay
What two nations are presently not in the United Nations?
Taiwan and Switzerland
What are the main characteristics of underdevelopment?
- High population growth rate
- Low life expectancy
- Inadequate health-care and sanitation levels b/c of lack of funds
- high illiteracy rates (especially women)
- low levels of industrial development
- predominantly agrarian subsistence economies
- severe urban overcrowding
- internal imbalance of development
- low levels of urbanization b/c of dependency of agriculture
What are the main obstacles to development?
- political instability
- frequency of wars i.e. Congo
- corrupted autocratic regimes
- misdirected development policies
- misused and mismanaged foreign aid
- high levels of indebtedness
- widespread corruption
- resistance to change
- developing countries have no say in pricing
Where does Grain farming occur?
North-central Canadian Prairies, Argentina, Europe, Kazakhstan, SE Australia
- Mostly wheat, wheat exports in Canada & US = 50%
Where does Live-stock ranching occur?
Western US, SE South America, Central Asia, South Africa, Australia
- a semi nomadic lifestyle
Where does commercial gardening and fruit farming occur?
SE US; SE Australia
Where does Plantation Farming occur?
- mostly in LDC/some MDC
- tropical and subtropical Latin America, Africa, and Asia
- A result of European colonial expansion
- large commercial, single crop farms
- owned and operated by Europeans/Americans
- crops grown for sale in MDCs
- cotton, sugar cane, coffee, tobacco, banana's, tea
Why did the Industrial revolution occur in England?
In the 1700's:
- Feudalism was long gone
- Relatively democratic
- strong entrepreneurial & expansionary ambition
- colonial possessions i.e. raw materials
- availability of industrial materials (coal, iron)
- strong Navy; large merchant fleet
- relatively well developed transportation infrastructure- key for economic development
What were some key technological changes (key inventions) that shaped the industrial revolution?
- a switch from human/animal power to mechanical power
- a switch from small scale cotton manufacturing to large scale factory production (increase in productivity)
- the STEAM engine (T. Newcomen) perfected by J. Watt
- textile industry inventions: flying shuttle, machine loom, spinning jenny
- heavy industry developments: coal mining, iron smelting
- a revolution in transportation: railways, steam engines
Where and to when did the industrial revolution diffuse to the rest of Europe?
1. Belgium and France, 1820's
2. Germany in the 2nd 1/2 of 1800's
3. Netherlands, Sweden, Western Central Europe
4. European Russia, 1890's
5. Rest of Europe, early 1900's
Where and when did the Industrial Revolution diffuse to Canada and the US?
- textiles to New England, late 18c
- cotton production by slaves in the south in 1860's
- 1860: US 2nd to Britain in industrial output
- turn of the century: US #1
- Canada approx. 20 years behind
- Central Canada becomes apart of the industrial output core, Great Lakes & St. Lawrence
When did the Industrial Revolution diffuse to the rest of the World?
- Japan: after 1868, then Australia, NZ, India
- South Africa under British rule: early 20c
- rest of the world: 20c, still not complete
What are the 4 regions of industrial capacity and production found?
75% of the world's industrial capacity and production are found in:
- North America
- W. Europe
- E. Europe & Russia
- E. Asia
Further discuss the North American industrial region.
- concentrated w/in the NE US and SE Canada
- relative location vis-a-vis Europe
- raw material accessibility (coal, iron)
- 19c: excellent transportation networks
What are the 4 specific quadrants of the North American industrial region?
New England: oldest, cotton textiles, currently: skilled expensive labor, high tech; Boston's focus is on education

Middle Atlantic: megalopolis NY: financial, political, global center; parts of NY, Philadelphia, Baltimore

Mohawk Valley: NY city to Great Lakes; great transportation; cheap electricity b/c of Niagara Falls; Aluminum, paper, electronics, chemicals

Pittsburgh-Lake Erie Region: steal manufacturer
Further discuss the Russian industrial region.
- centered on Moscow- largest market
- textiles, chemicals, light industrial goods, 25% of Russia's outputs
- Volga Region: energy resource base; motor vehicles
- The Urals: rich mineral base
- Kuznetsk Industrial District: SW Siberia; coal mining, iron ore district; experienced a boom during Soviet Era
Further discuss the rest of the world's industrial regions.
India: Mumbai, Bengal, Bangalore area
South Africa: Johannesburg, Pretoria
Australia: Sydney, Melbourne
Latin America: central Mexico, SE Brazil
NE Argentina: Central Chile
What was the earliest developed State?
Mesopotomia: 5000 years ago (Iran/Iraq)
What is the longest/oldest contingency?
China (1800 BC)
Who kicks ass?
Jewbie Bananaa