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290 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Earth's diameter
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12,800 km (8000 mi)
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Earth's shape
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Oblate spheroid (bulges slightly around equator)
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Zero longitude
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Prime meridian (Greenwich, England)
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180 longitude
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International date line
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Range of latitude
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180 degrees (90 degrees north is North Pole, 90 degrees south is South Pole)
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Great circle
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Any line that runs around full diameter of the globe - i.e. all meridians, but equator is the only parallel
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Time zones
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24 worldwide, 15 longitudinal degrees in each - time changes by one hour from one zone to the next
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Dates and time zones
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Headed WEST: Cross international date line --> flip date forward. Cross midnight --> flip date backward.
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Map scale
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Compares the size of features on the map with size in real life
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Graphic scale
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Bar or line with cross marks, indicating distance
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Fractional scale
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Reports scale as ratio or fraction
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Conical projection
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Light projected onto paper in a cone shape on top of globe
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Cylindrical projection
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Light projected onto paper in a cylinder shape around the globe
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Mercator projection
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Most common projection type - important to navigation for ships
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Azimuthal projection
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Light projected onto paper lying tangential to top of globe
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Rotation of Earth
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Spins on axis once per day - produces day and night
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Revolution of Earth
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Annual orbit around the Sun
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Ellipse
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Shape of Earth's orbit (slightly elongated circle)
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Plane of the ecliptic
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Formed by Earth's orbit
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Perihelion
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Point on Earth's orbit closest to the Sun (occurs ~ Jan 3)
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Aphelion
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Point on Earth's orbit farthest away from the Sun (occurs ~ July 4)
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Summer solstice/June solstice
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North Pole is aimed directly as possible at the Sun - 24 hour daylight in Arctic, 24 hour darkness in Antarctic - occurs ~ June 21
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Three gases that compose the atmosphere
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Nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), argon (1%)
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Chemicals responsible for ozone depletion
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Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
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Halons
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Compounds that destroy ozone - 50x more potent than CFCs but less abundant
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Montreal Protocol
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Agreement to ban CFCs and halons by 2000
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Replacements for CFCs
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Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
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Layers of atmosphere
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Troposphere (tropopause), stratosphere (stratopause), mesosphere (mesopause), thermosphere (ends at edge of "outer space")
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Stefan-Boltzman law
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Emission = Constant x Temp^4
Warmer objects emit more radiation |
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Wein's law
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Peak wavelength = Constant / Temp
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Insolation
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Incoming solar radiation
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Solar constant
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Two calories per sq. cm. per minute arrive over one year
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Emission
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Creation of radiation
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Absorption
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Assimilation of radiation by an object it strikes
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Reflection
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Radiation bouncing off an object
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Transmission
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Radiation passing through a substance
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Albedo
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Indicates how much light bounces off a surface
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Net radiation
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Incoming solar radiation minus outgoing terrestrial radiation
Positive near Equator, negative near poles |
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Conduction
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Heat transfer between molecules that touch
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Heat gradient
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Temperature difference
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Advection
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Molecules carrying heat horizontally
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Convection
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Molecules carrying heat vertically
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Latent heat
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Energy of evaporation (vapor molecules carry warmth into the air)
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Process of evaporation
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Water molecules cling together -- > only most energetic (warmest) molecules can break free to evaporate --> least energetic (coolest) molecules left behind --> Surface becomes cooler
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Phase changes that cool water down
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Melting (ice --> liquid), evaporation (liquid --> vapor), sublimation (ice --> vapor)
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Other phase changes of water
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Condensation (vapor --> liquid), freezing (liquid --> ice), deposition (vapor --> ice)
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Inversion
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Cold air present below warm air
Happens when ground cools at night by emission of longwave radiation (cools low-lying air) Stable air - any rising bubble will hit warm air higher up and stop rising |
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Specific heat
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Chemical property that dictates how much energy absorption results in increased temp
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Reasons land heats up faster than water
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1) Water has high specific heat
2) Water transmits sunlight 3) Cool water mixes with heated surface water 4) Some absorbed energy causes evap instead of heating |
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Continental climates
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Occur inland
Have comparatively large temp swings from day --> night and summer --> winter |
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Maritime climates
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Occur in coastal areas
Comparatively stable temps from day --> night and summer --> winter |
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Air pressure
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Force (15 lbs/sq. in.) caused by colliding air molecules
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Barometer
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Instrument that measures air pressure
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Isobars
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Depict air pressure on a map
WInds blow parallel to them in the upper troposphere |
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Millibars
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Units used in air pressure measurements
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Wind
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Spontaneous redistribution of air molecules from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure
Faster when difference is extreme Named for where they came from |
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Coriolis force/Coriolis effect
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Objects moving through the atmosphere deflect to the right in the northern hemisphere; to the left in the southern hemisphere
Max effect near poles, zero force near equator |
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High pressure centers
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Occur where air is sinking (subsiding)
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Low pressure centers
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Occur where air is rising (ascending)
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Movement of air around pressure centers (Northern hemisphere)
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Counterclockwise and inward into lows
Clockwise and outward from highs |
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Movement of air around pressure centers (Southern hemisphere)
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Counterclockwise and outward from highs
Clockwise and inward into lows |
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Relative humidity
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Measurement of how close air is to saturation
= (Actual vapor pressure / Saturation vapor pressure) x 100 When reaches 100%, fog/clouds form |
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Saturation vapor pressure
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Precise amount of water needed for saturation at any particular temperature
Higher in warmer areas than cold (warmer air holds more water without saturating b/c vapor moves too quickly for droplets to snag) |
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Heat index
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Measures relative humidity
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Dew point temperature
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The actual temperature at which saturation occurs
Depends on how much vapor is present in the air Used to express how wet/dry the air is |
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Stability
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Estimation of how easily air can uplift
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Adiabatic cooling
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Internal cooling of rising air bubbles
Can erase temp difference between bubble and outside air, stopping bubble rising Happens because air bubbles expand as they rise through the air, using up energy Opposite happens if bubble sinks again |
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Dry adiabatic lapse rate
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Rate of cooling or warming in atmosphere
10 C per km rise or fall Only applies to air w/o clouds or fog |
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Saturated adiabatic lapse rate
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Rate of cooling or warming in atmosphere
~6 C per km rise or fall Only applies to air w/ clouds or fog |
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Unstable air
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Occurs when outside of an air bubble cools faster than inside, allowing the bubble to stay warmer than its surroundings and rise far
Environmental lapse rate > 10 degrees per km (dry adiabatic lapse rate) Even dry air (which cools fastest) will rise |
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Environmental lapse rate
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Steepness of the temp drop in the troposphere
Usually 5-10 degrees per km |
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Stable air
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Occurs when air outside a bubble cools slower than inside, so the bubble cools to air temp and stops rising
Environmental lapse rate < 6 degrees per km (saturated adiabatic lapse rate) Even saturated air (which stays warmest) will not rise |
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Conditionally unstable air
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Environmental lapse rate is between 6 and 10 degrees per km
Only saturated air (which stays warmest) will rise Average ELR is in this range |
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Convective uplift
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Rising of heated air
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Orographic uplift
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Deflection of wind upward over a mountain
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Air mass interaction
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Clashing of warm and cold masses of air, forcing the warm upwards
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Convergence of wind flows
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Higher surface air pressure is created
Air rises to areas of lower pressure overhead |
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Cirriform
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Clouds that are thin and wispy
Composed of ice crystals High height |
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Stratiform
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Clouds that are blanket-like, in sheets or layers
Can be high, medium, or low height |
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Cumuliform
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Clouds that are puffy or rounded
Can be high, medium, or low height Single cloud may span entire range of heights |
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How to name clouds
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1st word = height ; 2nd word = shape
Cirro = high height ; Alto = low height ; no prefix is used if cloud is low height Cirrus = thin/wispy ; Stratus = blanket-like ; Cumulus = puffy/rounded |
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Altostratus
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Blanket-like cloud at medium height
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Cumulus
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Puffy cloud at low height
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Nimbostratus
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Blanket-like cloud producing rain
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Cumulonimbus
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Puffy cloud producing rain
Most thunderstorm clouds are this type |
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Stratocumulus
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Cloud between blanket-like and puffy shape
Always at low height |
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Cirrus
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Wispy cloud at high height
Easier than saying "cirrocirrus" |
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Radiation fog
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Fog caused by:
1) Ground cools by emitting radiation at night 2) Air surface cools by conducting its heat into ground 3) Air cools to dew point 4) Vapor condenses to form fog Most common type of fog in New Orleans |
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Advection fog
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Fog caused by wet air moving horizontally over cooler surface, cooling it to dew point
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Upslope/orographic fog
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Fog caused by wet air being forced upslope and cooling adiabatically
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Evaporation fog
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Fog caused by:
1) Water evaporates into cold air that is touching surface 2) Evaporated water condenses (esp if air was near saturation to start) |
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Chinook winds (in Rockies)
or Foehn winds (in Alps) |
Dry, warm local winds caused by condensation
Occur on downwind side of mountains that deflect wind upward Air loses water and gains heat in ascent, so becomes drier/warmer |
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How precipitation forms (cold clouds)
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Ice crystals form in cloud, crystals grow by deposition of vapor onto crystals
Produces snow - may produce hail if strong updrafts are present (crystal falls and rises repeatedly through cloud, allowing large size and layering) |
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Supercooled droplets
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Liquid droplets present in cold clouds that are below 32 F
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How precipitation forms (warm clouds)
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Cloud droplets collide and coalesce, merging into larger raindrops
Falls as rain - if they freeze on the way down, becomes sleet |
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Urban heat islands
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Urban areas that are several degrees F warmer than rural
Several reasons: Tall buildings absorb solar radiation and block radiation from leaving; air pollution absorbs radiation; fossil fuel use, etc. |
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Air masses
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Regions of homogeneous temp, humidity, and stability in air
Each is huge; moves as a unit Originate in high or low lats, invade midlats |
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Naming air masses
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First letter indicates whether originated over land or water area (c = continental ; m = maritime)
Second letter indicates latitude formed at (A = Arctic ; P = Polar ; T = Tropical) |
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Fronts
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Narrow (several miles) boundary between air masses
Usually in motion |
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Cold front
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Cold air invading warm
Moves faster, rises more steeply, more violent weather |
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Warm front
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Warm air invading cold
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Stationary front
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Front that isn't moving
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Squall line
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Line of intense thunderstorms ahead of cold front
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Occluded front
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Occurs when cold front catches warm front when swinging around center of low pressure on surface
Causes midlatitude cyclonic storms to die |
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Other names for hurricanes
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Tropical cyclones
In East Asia: Typhoon In South Asia/Australia: Cyclone |
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Eye
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The 10-25 mile-wide, non-stormy center of a hurricane
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Eye wall
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Borders the eye
Strongest winds (74-200 mph) and sometimes 50,000+ ft tall cumulonimbus clouds |
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Life cycle of a hurricane
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Originate in deep tropics in late summer/fall from oceanic thunderstorms
Move east to west, swinging poleward Die when move over continent or hit unfavorable sea conditions |
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Tropical depression
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Ocean storm moving in a closed circular pattern
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Tropical storm
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Ocean storm moving in a closed circular pattern at 39-73 mph
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Hurricane
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Ocean storm moving in a closed circular pattern at 74+ mph
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Cape Verde storms
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Ocean storms (hurricanes) that form near Africa
Usually long lived |
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Wind shear
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Uneven winds at top and bottom of a hurricane
May cause hurricane to die |
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Safford-Simpson scale
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Measurement of hurricane winds
Category 1-5 |
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Stages of thunderstorm
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1) Updraft
2) Up- and downdraft in different parts of cloud at same time (Downdraft caused by precip and internal evap cooling) 3) Downdrafts dominate and storm dies |
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Lifting condensation level
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Flat bottom of a storm cloud that shows where rising air reached dew point
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Area of US where T-storms are most common
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Gulf coast
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Fujita Scale/Enhanced Fujita Scale
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Measurement of tornado strength
F1-F5 (or EF1-EF5) |
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Characteristics of tornado
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Small - usually <1/4 mile across
Usually have winds <125 mph Travel about 15-20 mph, SW to NE Last about an hour |
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Waterspouts
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Funnel cloud over water
Can be tornadic or "fair weather" |
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Climates similar to Louisiana
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Parts of southeastern China
Parts of Argentina East coast of Australia |
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Tropical wet climate
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In tropics - e.g. Brazil, Central America, Central Africa, Indonesia, New Guinea
Like New Orleans summer all year Low latitude means ample sun Equatorial trough means daily rain Trade winds mean persistent breeze |
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Subtropical west coast desert
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In subtropical west coasts - e.g. Baja California, Chile, Peru, Namibia, Morocco
Warm and dry year-round High humidity and frequent fog |
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Monsoon/savanna climate
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Extensive in tropics
Hot with wet and dry seasons Wet summer - air flows sea to land (monsoon) or equatorial trough migrates into area (savanna) Dry winter - air flows land to sea (monsoon) or dry subtropical high pressure zone moves into area (savanna) Temp peaks in late spring - summer cooled by rain |
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Mediterranean climate
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In coasts in lower midlatitudes - e.g. Mediterranean, SoCal, parts of Chile/South Africa/Australia
Hot dry summers (subtropical high pressure zone) and mild winters |
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Marine west coast climate
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In midlatitude west coasts - e.g. NW Europe, Pacific NW, SW South America, New Zealand, Tasmania
Stable mild temps (for latitude) Frequent clouds and precip - usually drizzly |
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Subarctic climate
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In high latitudes of northern hemisphere - e.g. Alaska, Canada, Scandinavia, Siberia
Huge annual temp range, bitterly cold winter Scant precip but what does fall doesn't melt |
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Ice cap climate
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>9% of land on Earth - e.g. Antarctica, Greenland
VERY cold, VERY dry |
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Highland climate
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In mountains everywhere
Thin air causes large day-night temp fluctuation and rapid Tstorm development Temp varies greatly with elevation |
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Lee
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Downwind slope of a mountain
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Rainshadow
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Clouds pinned behind mountain
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Hydrosphere
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Consists of Earth's water, its movement, and its properties
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Capillarity
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Characteristic of water molecules to cling together
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Hydrologic cycle
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1) Evaporates from surface and becomes vapor in air
2) Vapor condenses into clouds and forms precip 3) Precip falls to surface and evaporates again 4) From surface, flows into ground, streams/rivers, or lakes/oceans Only a tiny percent of Earth's water is moving through cycle at any given time Individual vapor molecule stays in air just hours or days |
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Distribution of Earth's water
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97.2% in ocean, 2% in glaciers
Of the remaining <1%, 5x as much in soil and crust as elsewhere |
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Tide
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"Bulge" of water on side of Earth closest to Moon
Caused by Moon's gravitational pull Bulges create high tide on shore; between bulges is low tide (two of each per day, occur 50 min later each day) |
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Spring tides
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Earth-Moon-Sun are all in alignment, increasing gravitational pull on oceans
Produces deepest bulges --> most extreme tides Happens during full and new moon |
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Neap tides
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Earth-Moon-Sun are farthest out of alignment as possible, distributing far the gravitational pull on oceans
Produces shallowest bulges --> weakest tides Happens during half moon |
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Bay of Fundy (Canada)
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Locale of world's most extreme tidal swings (50 ft difference between high-low)
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Gyres
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Circular ocean flows following wind circulation around high pressure cells in atmosphere
Carry cold water equatorward along western sides of continents Carry warm water poleward along eastern sides of continents |
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Notable ocean current flows
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California (N America) and Humboldt (S America) currents - cold water flowing equatorward
Gulf stream - warm water flowing poleward West wind drift - encircles globe at 60 S, not blocked by continents North Atlantic drift - takes warm water from Gulf Stream and carries toward Europe |
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Water table
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Upper edge of saturated ground below surface
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Percolation
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Movement of water through saturated ground
Enters surface water where saturated ground breaks surface |
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Aquifers
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Underground rocks containing water within cracks
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Aquicludes
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Layers of impermeable rock on top of aquifers
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Artesian well
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A well drilled through an aquiclude into pressurized water
Water may be under such high pressure it rises w/o pumping |
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Ogallala Aquifer
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Huge aquifer under Great Plains used for farm irrigation since 1930s
In danger of depletion within 10-50 years |
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Outer crust
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First layer of Earth's interior
Solid to ~20 mi deep Thickest under continents |
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Upper mantle
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Second layer of Earth's interior
Still solid to ~50 mi deep, becomes tar-like at MOHO to ~200 mi deep |
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Mohorovicic discontinuity (MOHO)
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Boundary between crust and upper mantle
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Deep mantle
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Third layer of Earth's interior
Solid to ~1800 mi deep |
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Outer core
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Fourth layer of Earth's interior
Molten to ~3100 mi deep |
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Inner core
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Center of Earth
Solid |
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Bedrock
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Solid rock underneath surface
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Outcrop
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Exposed bedrock at surface
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Regolith
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Crumbled, decomposed rock layer covering bedrock
Typically covered by soil |
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Magma
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Molten rock
Called "lava" if on surface |
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Igneous rock
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Forms from solidified magma
Intrusive = cooled slowly below surface, causing crystals to form and appear coarse grained (e.g. granite) Extrusive = cooled more quickly at surface, so appear fine/smooth (e.g. basalt) |
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Metamorphic rock
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Pre-existing rock that was transformed to another type by heat/compression below ground
E.g. marble (metamorphosed limestone), slate (metamorphosed shale) |
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Sedimentary rock
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Formed from compacted sediments, often old sand/mud
Inorganic (clastic) = formed from crumbled rock Organic = formed from once-live matter, e.g. coral, shells, plants Minerals = form by precipitating from water |
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Uniformitarianism
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Assumption that land-making processes have moved at their present-day speed for millions of years
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Constructive forces
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Raise Earth's surface up or create new material
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Destructive forces
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Lower Earth's surface
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Topography
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Surface configuration of Earth
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Landforms
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Individual topographic features
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Geomorphology
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Study of landforms
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Relief
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Difference in elevation between a landform's highest and lowest point
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Slope
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The angle of rise or fall
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Aspect
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Direction a slope is facing
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Continental drift
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Slow moving of Earth's continents
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Lithosphere
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Solid outer layer of Earth's core (i.e. outer crust)
Constantly added to by new material rising from lower layers and hardening |
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Asthenosphere
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Tar-like underlying layer of Earth's core (i.e. upper mantle)
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Plates
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Moving pieces of lithosphere containing seafloor and continents
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Plate tectonics
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Sliding of lithosphere across asthenosphere
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Subduction
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Plates collide and one is forced downward, blending into asthenosphere
Forms ocean trenches where occurs |
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Normal fault
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Scarp drops down over footwall
Forces are extensional (pulling plates apart) |
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Reverse fault
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Scarp moves up over footwall
Forces are compressional (pushing plates together) |
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Strike-slip (transform) faults
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Fault plane is vertical so no scarp
Forces are lateral/horizontal (plates carried past each other) |
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Pangaea
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Name given to all continents merged into a supercontinent ~300 million years ago
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Laurasia
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Part of Pangaea that moved north after the supercontinent split up
Contained N America and Eurasia |
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Gondwanaland
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Part of Pangaea that moved south after the supercontinent split up
Contained S America, Africa, Australia, and Antarctica Also contained India but it broke off and went north |
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Evidence for plate tectonics
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Continents "fit" across Atlantic
Similarities in flora/fauna between southern continents Strings of volcanic islands in oceans (formed as plate crust slid over "hot spot" where asthenosphere rises) Magnetic striping patterns on seafloor rocks Deeper sediments found farther from sea floor ridges (ridges form where asthenosphere rises) Consistent with locations of ocean ridges/trenches |
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Diastrophism
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Deformation of Earth's crust
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Broad-warping
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Vertical movement of crust
E.g. West coast of US rising, east coast sinking |
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Folding
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Bending of crust up and down
Weakens rock, making vulnerable to crumbling/erosion (e.g. Appalachians) |
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Faulting
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Movement along fractures in crust
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Anticlinal ridge
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Upward formation caused by folding
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Synclinal valley
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Downward formation caused by folding
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Fault plane
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Plane of contact between plates
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Fault line
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Marks fault plane at surface
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Fault scarp
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Cliff formed by uneven "blocks" at fault line
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Fault-block mountain
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Mountain range raised along a single fault
E.g. Sierra Nevada and Grand Tetons |
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Horst
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Mountain raised between two parallel faults
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Earthquakes
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Shock waves from slippage along a fault
Occur after stress has accumulated over time from plate movement |
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Epicenter
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Found on the surface above an earthquake's point of origin (down in crust)
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Richter scale
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Traditionally used to measure strength of earthquakes
Increase of one unit = 10x stronger Anything 6.5+ considered significant |
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Moment Magnitude Scale
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Replacement of Richter scale
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Tsunami
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Huge wave caused by seafloor earthquake
Also called "tidal wave" even though has nothing to do with tide Can reach 100 ft high when breaks on shore |
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Active volcano
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Frequently erupts
Found only in Alaska and Hawaii |
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Dormant volcano
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Has been active in the historic past
Found along US west coast, e.g. Mount St. Helens |
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Lava flow
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Spread of magma on surface
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Volcanic peak
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Cone-shaped, caused by pileup from repeated eruptions
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Caldera
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Circular pit at top of volcano caused by violent eruption
E.g. Crater Lake, Oregon |
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Volcanic neck
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Sharp spire caused by solidified lava inside volcanic peak
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Aeolian sand dune
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Piles of sand formed by wind
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Barchan dunes
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Usually solo and symmetrically shaped
Found on non-sandy surfaces |
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Transverse dunes
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Usually in groups and less symmetrically shaped
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Seif dunes
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Long parallel ridges of dunes that often stretch for miles
E.g. Sahara dunes |
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Badlands
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Inhospitable barren areas of eroded rock
Form in weak sedimentary rock |
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Rills
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Initial sign of erosion as shallow waterways on an exposed slope
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Gullies
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Large ditches or small valleys caused by running water eroding into soil
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Playa
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Another term for a basin
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Playa lake
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A playa/basin when filled with water
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Salina
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Playa lake which evaporates and leaves accumulated salt behind
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Interior drainage basin
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Basin with no outlet stream
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Pediment
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Gentle slope of basin at retreating mountain face
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Ephemeral stream
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Stream of water from mountain that is dry except immediately after rain
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Alluvial fan
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Delta shaped landform where stream exits mountains
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Bajada
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Group of overlapping alluvial fans along a mountain front
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Plateau
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The largest flat-topped hill type
Covers miles |
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Mesa
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The second-largest flat-topped hill type
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Butte
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The second-smallest flat-topped hill type
Roughly same width as height |
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Pinnacle
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The smallest flat-topped hill type
Spire-like shape |
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Headlands
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Areas of land jutting out into sea
Experience greatest erosion from waves |
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Refraction
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Bending of waves toward headlands
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Longshore currents
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Current running parallel to shore
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Swash
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Flow of a wave up onto a beach
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Backwash
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Retreat of wave from the beach
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Dune (beach)
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Pile of accumulated sand at back of beach
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Backshore
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Flat zone of deposition above waves
Also called "berm" |
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Foreshore
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Zone of wave action
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Offshore
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Area of beach that is constantly submerged
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Spit
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Long narrow deposit of sediment
Grows by extending down-current as new sediment is continuously deposited at the tip |
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Baymouth bar
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A spit that encloses a bay
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Fjord
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Deep, glacially carved coastal valley that may extend >100 mi inland
Glacier no longer present |
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Barrier island
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Long, thin island of sediment that is parallel to shore
May gradually become joined to mainland if sediment fills lagoon or if waves cause seaward edge to retreat |
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Bench
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Area of new seafloor formed by eroded cliffside
Waves create notch in headlands --> forms backward-leaning cliff --> new seafloor |
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Terrace
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Deposited sediment from shore erosion
Offshore from the bench |
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Sea stacks
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Large isolated rocks standing in water just offshore
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Coral
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Tiny colonial sessile animals that build calcium carbonate "forts"
Found worldwide in tropical oceans |
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Fringing reefs
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Coral reefs ledging along shore
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Barrier reefs
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Coral reefs lying parallel to shore but don't connect with it
E.g. Great Barrier Reef |
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Atoll
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Broken ring of coral enclosing a lagoon
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Karst
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Collective name for weird landforms produced from limestone
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Cavern
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Forms when underground limestone is dissolved
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Speleotherms
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Oddly shaped features found underground in caverns
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Stalactites
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Like stone icicles
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Stalagmites
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Point up from cavern floor
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Sink hole
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Forms where erosion forms a pit, or where cavern roof caves in
Leaves giant hole in the ground |
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Glaciers
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Currently present only in mountainous areas of Arctic Circle (9-10% of Earth's land) but were once as far south as Great Lakes
At max, covered almost 30% of Earth's land |
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Glacial
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Ice age - when glaciers advance south
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Interglacial
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Warm period - when glaciers retreat north
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Plucking
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Form of glacial erosion
Glacier freezes onto bedrock beneath and pulls it forward |
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Glacial flour
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Fine powdery rock material transported within glaciers
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Periglacial processes
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Indirect effects of glaciers in areas not touched by ice
E.g. Meltwater streams carrying large boulders |
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Drift
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Material deposited by glaciers
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Till
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Material deposited directly from glacial ice
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Unsorted
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Large and small pieces mixed (referring to glacial till)
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Glacial erratic
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Large rocks moved by glacial ice
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Hanging valley
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A valley perched on the wall of a deeper valley, often with a waterfall
Results from large glacier cutting a deeper valley than the smaller glaciers that feed into it |
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Glacial cirque
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Round basin once occupied by a glacier
Common on upper mountain slopes |
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Horn
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Forms when several cirques erode into a peak on upper mountain slopes
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Moraine
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Pile landform deposited at the end of a glacier
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Terminal moraine
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Moraine that formed on the downhill end of a glacier
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Lateral moraine
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Moraine that formed on the sides of a glacier
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Medial moraine
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Moraine that formed sandwiched between two glaciers that flow together
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Horse latitudes
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30 degrees north or south
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Cryosphere
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Frozen water of the globe
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Carbonation
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Weathering that dissolves calcium carbonate based rock (e.g. limestone)
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Mineral hydration
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Weathering that dissolves minerals by chemically attaching H and OH molecules to mineral molecules
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Oxidation
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Weathering that dissolves metals through chemical alteration.
Similar to rusting but distinct from the rusting of metallic iron |
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Salt wedging
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Weathering that disintegrates rocks via saline solution seeping into cracks and evaporates, leaving behind salt crystals that expand and break down the rock.
Common in arid and coastal areas |
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Angle of repose
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Steepest angle of descent relative to the horizontal plane when material on the slope is on the verge of sliding
If smaller than degree of slope may cause a landslide |
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Talus slope
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Formation that results from accumulation of rocks at the base of a cliff or mountain slope
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Slump
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Form of mass wasting that occurs when a mass of rock layers or other materials slides a short distance down a slope
Causes include earthquake shocks, getting too wet, freezing and thawing, undercutting, etc. |
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Mudflow
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Rapid downhill movement of a large mass of mud
Causes include heavy rainfall, snowmelt, etc |
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Earthflow
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Rapid downhill movement of saturated earth (usually clay, sand, or silt)
Causes include oversaturation, etc. |
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Rock fall
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Quantities of rock falling down a cliff face
Causes include weathering, etc. |
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Sheet erosion
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Uniform removal of soil in thin layers by raindrops/overland flow
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Splash erosion
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First stage of erosion process
Raindrops hit bare soil, loosening it |
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Abrasion
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Erosion produced by solid materials carried by running water
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Traction
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Rolling of a rock or other particle along a streambed
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Competence
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The size of the largest piece of material a stream can carry
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Shear strength
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Material's ability to resist forces that cause its internal structure to slide against itself
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First order stream
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The smallest of the world's streams, usually a small tributary which feeds larger streams but has nothing flowing into it
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Second order stream
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Formed by the joining of two first order streams
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Floodplain
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Area of land adjacent to a river/stream that experiences flooding when the water overflows its banks
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Terrace
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Step-like landform that borders a shoreline/river floodplain but does not experience flooding
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Interfluve
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High ground between stream valleys
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Grabin
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Valley between two faults
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