Geo1

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Geography

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· Literally means Earth description. As a modern academic discipline, it is concerned with theexplanation of the physical and human characteristics of the Earth’s surface.“Why are things located where they are are?” is the central question thatgeographical scholarship seeks to answer.

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Geology

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is an earth science comprising the study of solid Earth, the rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which they change

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· Meteorology

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Systematic, interdisciplinary study of the short-term atmospheric phenomena that constitute weather.

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· Pedology

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Soil science; study of soils.

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· Hydrology

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Systematic study of the Earth’s water in all its states

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Geomorphology

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Literally means Earth shape or form; geography of landscape and its evolution, a major subfield of physical geography

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· OpenSystem

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System whose boundaries (interfaces) freely permit the transfer of energy and matter across them.

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· ClosedSystem

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Self-contained system exhibiting no exchange of energy or matter across its boundaries (interfaces).

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· Atmosphere

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(and layers) Blanket of air that adheres to the Earth’s surface, which contains the mixture of gases essential to the survival of all terrestrial life forms.

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Continental Shelf

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Gently sloping, relatively shallow, submerged plain just off the coast of a continent, extending to a depth of ca. 180 m (600 ft/100 fathoms).

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· ContinentalSlope

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- Steeply plunging slope that begins at the outer edge of the continental shelf (ca. 180 m [600 ft] below the sea surface) and ends in the depths of the ocean floor at the head of the continental rise.

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· Ellipsoid

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This article is about the geometric three-dimensional shape. Ellipsoids of revolution (spheroid) with a pair of equal semi-axes (a) and a distinct third semi-axis (c) which is an axis of symmetry.

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Hemisphere

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Half-sphere; used precisely, as in Northern Hemisphere (everything north of 0° latitude), or sometimes more generally, as in land hemisphere (the significant concentration of landmasses on roughly one side of the Earth).

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· Hydrosphere

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Sphere of the Earth System that contains all the water that exists on and within the solid surface of our planet and in the atmosphere above.

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· Lithosphere

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Outermost shell of the solid Earth, lying immediately below the land surface and ocean floor (lithos means rock); composed of the Earth’s thin crust together with the solid uppermost portion of the upper mantle that lies just below the Mid-Oceanic Ridge

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· Cartography

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Science, art, and technology of mapmaking and map use.

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· ConicProjection

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One in which the transfer of the Earth grid is from a globe onto a cone, which is then cut and laid flat.

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Contours

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Representation of surface relief using isolines of elevation above sea level; an important basis of topographic mapping

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· CylindricalProjection-

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One in which the transfer of the Earth grid is from a globe onto a cylinder, which is then cut and laid flat.

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· EqualArea projection

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One in which all the areas mapped are represented in correct proportion to one another.

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· GIS

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Assemblage of computer hardware and software that permits spatial data to be collected, recorded, stored, retrieved, manipulated, analyzed, and displayed to the user.

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· GreatCircle

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Circle formed along the edge of the cut when a sphere is cut inhalf. On the surface of the sphere, that circle is the shortest distancebetween any two points located on it.

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· SmallCircle

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· circle that lies on a sphere. Such a circle can be formed as the intersection of a sphereand a plane, or of two spheres. A circle on a sphere whose plane passesthrough the center of the sphere is called a great circle; otherwise it is a small circle. Circles of asphere have radius less than or equal to the sphere radius, with equality whenthe circle is a great circle.

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· Isoline

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·Lineconnecting all places possessing the same value of a given phenomenon, such as“height” above the flat base of the surface being mapped.

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· MercatorProjection

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· Most famous of the cylindrical projections, the only one onwhich any straight line is a line of true and constant compass bearing.

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· Meridians

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· On the Earth grid, a north–south line of longitude. These range from 0°(prime meridian) to 180°E and W (180°E and W, of course, are the same line—theinternational date line [written simply as 180°]). Parallels On the Earth grid,an east–west line of latitude. These parallels range from 0° (Equator) to 90°Nand S (the North and South Poles, respectively, where the east–west lineshrinks to a point).

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Planar Projection

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One in which the transfer of the Earth grid isfrom a globe onto a plane, involving a single point of tangency

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· AntarcticCircle

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· Latitude (66.5°S) marking the northern boundary of the SouthernHemisphere portion of the Earth’s surface that receives a 24-hour period ofsunlight at least once each year.

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Aphelion

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Latitude (66.5°N) marking the southern boundary of the Northern Hemisphere portionof the Earth’s surface that receives a 24-hour period of sunlight at least onceeach year

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· ArcticCircle

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Latitude (66.5°N) marking the southern boundary of the NorthernHemisphere portion of the Earth’s surface that receives a 24-hour period of sunlightat least once each year.

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· Axis

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Imaginary line that extends from theNorth Pole to the South Pole through the center of the Earth. The planet’srotation occurs with respect to this axis.

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· Circle ofIllumination

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· Circle ofIllumination At any given moment on our constantly rotating planet, theboundary between the halves of the Earth that are in sunlight and darkness.

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· DaylightSavings

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By law, all clocks in a time zone are set one hour forward fromstandard time for at least part of the year. In the United States, localities(i.e., the state of Arizona) can exempt themselves from such federalregulations.

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· Equinox

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· One of the two days (around March 21 and September 23) in the year when theSun’s noontime rays strike the Earth vertically at the Equator. In NorthernHemisphere terminology, the March 21 event is called the spring (vernal)equinox and the September 23 event is called the fall (autumnal) equinox.

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Insolation

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incoming solar radiation

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· InternationalDate Line

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For themost part is antipodal to the prime meridian and follows the 180th meridian.Crossing the line toward the west involves skipping a day, whereas crossing theline toward the east means repeating a day.

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Plane of the ecliptic

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Planeformed by the Sun and the Earth’s orbital path

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· PerihelionPoint

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Point in the Earth’s orbit, which occurs every January 3, where the distance tothe Sun is minimized (about 147.5 million km [91.7 million mi]).liptic RotationPoint in the Earth’s orbit, which occurs every January 3, where the distance tothe Sun is minimized (about 147.5 million km [91.7 million mi]).

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· Revolution

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One complete circling of the Sun by a planet. It takes the Earth precisely oneyear to complete such an orbit.

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· Solstice-

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Summer solstice Each year, day of thepoleward extreme in the latitude where the Sun’s noontime rays strike theEarth’s surface vertically. In the Northern Hemisphere that latitude is 23.5°N(the Tropic of Cancer) and the date is June 22; in the Southern Hemisphere thatlatitude is 23.5°S (the Tropic of Capricorn) and the date is December 22.

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· Wintersolstice

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Day each year of thepoleward extreme in latitude in the opposite hemisphere where the Sun’snoontime rays strike the Earth’s surface vertically. In the NorthernHemisphere, that date is December 22 when the Sun is directly above latitude23.5°S (the Tropic of Capricorn); in the Southern Hemisphere, that date is June22 when the Sun is directly above latitude 23.5°N (the Tropic of Cancer).

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· Tropic ofCancer

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Most northerly latitude (23.5°N) where the Sun’s noontime raysstrike the Earth’s surface vertically (on June 22, the day of the NorthernHemisphere summer solstice).

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· Tropic ofCapricorn

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Winter solstice Day eachyear of the poleward extreme in latitude in the opposite hemisphere where theSun’s noontime rays strike the Earth’s surface vertically. In the NorthernHemisphere, that date is December 22 when the Sun is directly above latitude23.5°S (the Tropic of Capricorn); in the Southern Hemisphere, that date is June22 when the Sun is directly above latitude 23.5°N (the Tropic of Cancer).

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Zenith

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Point in the sky directly overhead, 90° abovethe horizon

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· Conduction-

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Transport of heat energy from one molecule to the next.

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· Convection-

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·If the material can flow, like air or water, we have the potential forconvection, another mode of heat transfer. In this case, the energy transfer isaccomplished by the flow itself, as when you are buffeted by a warm blast ofair or when you feel a cold “current” while swimming in the ocean or a hotspring.

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Greenhouse effect

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Widely used analogy describing the blanket-likeeffect of the atmosphere in the heating of the Earth’s surface. Shortwaveinsolation passes through the “glass” of the atmospheric “greenhouse,” heatsthe surface, is converted to longwave radiation, which cannot penetrate the“glass,” and thereby results in trapping heat that raises the temperature insidethe “greenhouse

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· LatentHeat

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“Hidden” heatinvolved in the processes of melting, freezing, evaporation, and condensation

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· Longwave radiation

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Radiation emitted by the Earth, which has much longerwavelengths—and involves much lower energy—than the solar (shortwave, higherenergy) radiation emitted by the Sun.

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· Radiation

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emitted by the Earth, which has much longer wavelengths—and involvesmuch lower energy—than the solar (shortwave, higher energy) radiation emittedby the Sun.

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· SensibleHeat

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environmental heat we feel or sense on our skin

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· ShortwaveRadiation

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Radiation coming from the Sun, which has much shorterwavelengths—and involves much higher energy—than the terrestrial (longwave,lower energy) radiation emitted by the Earth

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· ThermalEnergy

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is the energy thatcomes from heat. This heat is generated by the movement of tiny particleswithin an object. The faster these particles move, the more heat is generated.Stoves and matches are examples of objects that conduct thermal energy.

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· Carbon Dioxide

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Dominated by exchanges occurringbetween air and sea. CO 2 is directly absorbed by the ocean from the atmosphereand is released during the photosynthesis of billions of small organisms knownas plankton.

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· Constant Gasses

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Atmospheric gases always foundin the same proportions. Two of them constitute 99 percent of the air, nitrogen(78 percent) and oxygen (21 percent).

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· Fossil Fuels

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Coal, oil, and natural gas, thedominant suppliers of energy in the world economy.

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· Heterosphere

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Upper of the atmosphere’s twovertical regions, which possesses a variable chemical composition and extendsupward from an elevation of 80 to 100 km (50 to 63 mi) to the edge of outerspace.

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· Homosphere

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The lower of the atmosphere’s two vertical regions, which possesses arelatively uniform chemical composition and extends from the surface to anelevation of 80 to 100 km (50 to 63 mi).

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· Isotopes

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Related form of a chemical element; hasthe same number of protons and electrons but different numbers of neutrons.

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· Ozone

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Also known as the ozonosphere,the ozone-rich layer of the stratosphere that extends between 15 and 50 km (9and31 mi) above the surface. The highest concentrations of ozone are usually foundat the level between 20 and 25 km (12 and 15 mi).

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· Variable Gasses

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Atmospheric gases present indiffering quantities at different times and places; three are essential tohuman wellbeing: carbon dioxide, water vapor, and ozone.

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· Water Vapor

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Invisible gaseous form of water; themost widely distributed variable gas of the atmosphere.

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· Adiabatic Rates-

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When a given mass of air isforced to expand, its temperature decreases. If a parcel of air rises to ahigher altitude, it expands and cools adiabatically. Its lapse rate istherefore referred to as an adiabatic lapse rate.

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· Condensation

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Process by which a substance istransformed from the gaseous to the liquid state.

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· Diurnal

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Patternof temperature change during the course of a day.

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· Maritime Effect

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Moderating influence of theocean on air temperature, which produces cooler summers and milder wintersrelative to inland locations at similar latitudes.

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Thermometer

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Instrument formeasuring temperature. Most commonly these measurements are made by observingthe expansion and contraction of mercury inside a glass tube

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· Anticyclone

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Atmospheric high-pressure cellinvolving the divergence of air, which subsides at and flows spirally out ofthe center. The isobars around an anticyclone are generally circular in shape,with their values increasing toward the center. In the Northern Hemisphere,winds flow clockwise around an anticyclone; in the Southern Hemisphere, windsflow counterclockwise around an anticyclone.

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Barometer

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Instrument thatmeasures atmospheric pressure; invented by Torricelli in 1643

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Chinook Winds

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Chinook Winds Name given tothe foehn winds that affect the leeward areas of mountain zones in the westernplateaus of North America

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· Coriolis Forces

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Force that, owing to therotation of the Earth, tends to deflect all objects moving over the surface ofthe Earth away from their original paths. In the absence of any other forces,the deflection is to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left inthe Southern Hemisphere; the higher the latitude, the stronger the deflection.

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· Leeward

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Protected side of a topographic barrierwith respect to the winds that flow across it; often refers to the areadownwind from the barrier as well, which is said to be in the “shadow” of thathighland zone.

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Pressure Gradient

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Thedifference in surface pressure over a given distance between two locations iscalled the pressure gradient. When that pressure gradient exists, it acts as aforce that causes air to move (as wind) from the place of higher pressure tothat of lower pressure

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Santa Ana Winds

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Hot, dry,foehn-type wind that occasionally affects Southern California. Its unpleasantnessis heightened by the downward funneling of this airflow from the high inlanddesert through narrow passes in the mountains that line the Pacific coast

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· Sea Breeze

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· Sea Breeze Onshore airflow affecting a coastalzone, resulting from a daytime pressure gradient that steers local winds fromthe cooler (higher pressure) sea surface onto the warmer (lower pressure) landsurface.

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· Windward Exposed

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upwind side of a topographicbarrier that faces the winds that flow across it.

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Equatorial Low

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Parallel oflatitude running around the exact middle of the globe, defined as 0°

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· Jet Streams

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Two concentrated, high-altitude,west-to-east flowing “rivers” of air that are major features of the upper atmosphericcirculation system poleward of latitude 15° in both the Northern and SouthernHemispheres. Because of their general occurrence above the subtropical andsubpolar latitudes, they are respectively known as the subtropical jet streamand the Polar Front jet stream.A third such corridor of high-altitude,concentrated windflow is the tropical easterly jet stream, a major feature ofthe upper air circulation equatorward of latitude 15°N. This third jet stream,however, flows in the opposite, east-to-west direction and occurs only abovethe tropics of the Northern Hemisphere.

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· Monsoon

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Derived from the Arabic word for“season,” a regional windflow that streams onto and off certain landmasses on aseasonal basis. The moist onshore winds of summer bring the wet monsoon whereasthe offshore winds of winter are associated with the dry monsoon.

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Zonal Flows

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Westerly flowof winds that dominates the upper atmospheric circulation system poleward of 15degrees latitude in each hemisphere

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· Evapotranspiration

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Also known as vaporization, process by whichwater changes from the liquid to the gaseous (water vapor) state. Ittakes 597cal of heat energy to change the state of 1 g (0.04 oz) of water at 0°C (32°F)from a liquid to a gas.

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· Cirrus clouds

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· Cloud category that encompassesthin, wispy, streaklike clouds consisting of ice particles rather than waterdroplets; occur only at altitudes higher than 6000 m (20,000 ft).

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· Cumulus Clouds

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· Cloud category that encompassesthick, puffy, billowing masses that often develop to great heights;subclassified according to height.

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· Hydrologic Cycle

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Complex system of exchangeinvolving water in its various forms as it continually circulates among theatmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, and biosphere

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· Runoff Removal

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· as overland flow via the networkof streams and rivers—at the land surface of the surplus precipitation thatdoes not infiltrate the soil or accumulate on the ground through surfacedetention.

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Saturated air

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Air that isholding all the water vapor molecules it can possibly contain at a giventemperature

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Sublimation Process

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wherebya solid can change directly into a gas. The reverse process is also calledsublimation (or deposition). The heat required to produce these transformationsis the sum of the latent heats of fusion and vaporization

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· Water Vapor

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Invisible gaseous form of water; themost widely distributed variable gas of the atmosphere.

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Air masses

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Very large parcel of air (more than1600 km [1000 mi] across) in the boundary layer of the troposphere, whichpossesses relatively uniform qualities of density, temperature, and humidity inthe horizontal dimension. It is also bound together as an organized whole, avital cohesion because air masses routinely migrate for hundreds of kilometersas distinct entities.

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· Cold Front

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Produced when an advancing cold airmass hugs the surface and displaces all other air as it wedges itself beneaththe preexisting warmer air mass. Cold fronts have much steeper slopes than warmfronts and thus produce more abrupt cooling and condensation (and more intenseprecipitation).

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· Warm Front

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Fronts Surface that bounds an airmass, along which contact occurs with a neighboring air mass possessingdifferent qualities. This narrow boundary zone usually marks an abrupttransition in air density, temperature, and humidity. A moving front is theleading edge of the air mass built up behind it.

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· Tornados

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Small vortex of air, averaging 100 to500 m (330 to 1650 ft) in diameter, that descends to the ground from rotatingclouds at the base of a severe thunderstorm, accompanied by winds whose speedsrange from 50 to 130 m/s (110 to 300 mi/h). As tornadoes move across the landsurface, they evince nature’s most violent weather and can produce trulyawesome destruction in the natural and cultural landscapes.

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· Rain Shadow effect

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Dry conditions—often at aregional scale as in the U.S. interior West—which occur on the leeward side ofa mountain barrier that experiences orographic precipitation. The passage ofmoist air across that barrier wrests most of the moisture from the air, whoseadiabatic warming as it plunges downslope sharply lowers the dew point andprecipitation possibilities.

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· Orographic

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Lifting Rainfall (and sometimessnowfall) produced by moist air parcels that are forced to rise over a mountainrange or other highland zone. Such air parcels move in this manner because theyare propelled by both steering winds and the push of other air parcels pilingup behind them.