General Ecology Test 2 Flashcards

Front 1

What does a source sink model do?

Back 1

Recognizes differences in quality of suitable habitat patches

Front 2

What is a sink patch?

Back 2

Where resources are scarce

Front 3

What is a source patch?

Back 3

Where resources are abundant

Front 4

How are sink patches maintained?

Back 4

Immigration of other populations/individuals

Front 5

What happens within a source patch?

Back 5

-Individuals produce more offspring needed to replace themselves
-Surplus of individuals move to other patches

Front 6

What does a landscape model do?

Back 6

Considers effects of differences in habitat quality within the matrix

Front 7

How can the quality of a habitat patch be enhanced by the nature of the surrounding matrix?

Back 7

Quality is enhanced by the presence of resources within the matrix: Nest material, pollinators, etc

Front 8

How can the quality of a habitat patch be reduced by the nature of the surrounding matrix?

Back 8

Quality is reduced by presence of predators or disease organisms in matrix

Front 9

What is a metapopulation model?

Back 9

Views a population as a set of subpopulations occupying patches of a particular habitat

Front 10

What is a habitat matrix?

Back 10

Intervening habitat in a metapopulation model

Front 11

What is a matrix to a metapopulation model?

Back 11

Matrix is viewed as a barrier to dispersal

Front 12

What is Ideal Free Distribution?

Back 12

When individuals can make decisions regarding the quality of habitat patches

Front 13

What does the quality of a habitat patch depend on?

Back 13

Intrinsic qualities (resources/predators/etc) and the density of the population

Front 14

How frequently does ideal free distribution happen and why?

Back 14

Rarely: Individuals do not have perfect knowledge of patch quality and free choice may be reduced in subordinate individuals.

Front 15

What would happen if everything followed ideal free distribution?

Back 15

Ideal free distribution would suggest equivalent reproductive success among individuals occupying habitat patches of different quality (intrinsic)

Front 16

What are the 2 components for total population size?

Back 16

1. Density
2. Area Occupied

Front 17

What is the formula to determine total population?

Back 17

Density x Area Occupied = Size

Front 18

How is density measured for small populations?

Back 18

Total count, physical markings (bands)

Front 19

How is density measured in sessile organisms?

Back 19

Determined in plots then extrapolated to entire population

Front 20

What is the mark recapture method used for?

Back 20

In animal populations

Front 21

How is the Mark recapture method used?

Back 21

-An initial sample is collected and all individuals are distinctly marked
-Marked animals are released into the population and allowed to mix
-A second sample is collected and marked and unmarked individuals are tallied

Front 22

What is the formula for the mark recapture method?

Back 22

N = nM/x

-N: Population size
-M: Initial marked sample
-n: Number from second sample
-x: Number recaptured from first sample

Front 23

Solve:
20 fish are marked and released. 3 days later you net 50 fish and 6 of them are marked from the first sample. What is the population size?

Back 23

N = nM/x

= 50x20/6 = 167

Front 24

What is migration/dispersal?

Back 24

Movement between subpopulations

Front 25

What is the difference between emigration and immigration?

Back 25

-Emigration: Leaving a subpopulation
-Immigration: Entering a subpopulation

Front 26

What are some direct methods to monitor dispersal/monitored?

Back 26

Very difficult:
-Organisms must be marked and recaptured
-Large areas must be covered to ensure an adequate sampling of movements

Front 27

What are 2 indirect methods for monitoring dispersal?

Back 27

Genetics and stable isotopes

Front 28

What are the 4 seasons of a small temperate lake?

Back 28

Winter, Spring, Summer Fall

Front 29

Describe winter conditions in a small temperate lake.

Back 29

-Coldest water (0 degrees) at surface = ice
-Water beneath ice layer is insulated and unfrozen, 4 degrees C near bottom (water is dense, so it sinks)

Front 30

Describe spring conditions in a small temperate lake.

Back 30

-Ice melts as surface warms. Denser water sinks.
-Results in uniform 4 degrees C profile. Little resistance to wind.
-Causes Spring Overturn

Front 31

Describe summer conditions in a small temperate lake.

Back 31

-Continue warming at the surface. Causes Thermal Stratification.
-Stable, resists overturn

Front 32

What are the three water layers during summer in a small temperate lake?

Back 32

1. Epilimnion – Warmest waters, least dense, near surface and well oxygenated.
- Most things live here but runs out of nutrients.

2. Thermocline – Rapid temperature change, 5-20 meters below surface

3. Hypolimnion – Cool/Dense bottom water, may be oxygen depleted from organisms.

Front 33

What is the epilimnion layer?

Back 33

Warmest waters in lake, least dense, near surface and well oxygenated. Most things live here but runs out of nutrients.

Front 34

What is the thermocline layer?

Back 34

Rapid temperature change, 5-20 meters below surface of lake

Front 35

What is the hypolimnion layer?

Back 35

Cool/Dense bottom water, may be oxygen depleted from organisms.

Front 36

Describe fall in a small temperate lake.

Back 36

-Water cools at the surface and sinks, destroying stratification
-Allows Fall (Autumn) Overturn. Allows nutrients to mix and rejuvenate water.

Front 37

What is the gradient temperature in the mountains?

Back 37

-Temperature decreases: 6-10o C for each 1000 m in elevation
-Equivalent to going up 800 km in latitude

Front 38

What is soil?

Back 38

-Chemically and biologically altered materials overlying rock or unaltered parent material at Earth’s surface
-Composed of: Minerals, Organic Matter (dead), Air, Water, Living Organisms

Front 39

Describe the 4 layers of soil.

Back 39

-O Layer: Dead organic matter (plants)
-A Layer: Humus rich (decomposed organic matter)
-B Layer: Low organic matter (partially broken down,) clay and leeching occurs
-C Layer: Similar to parent rock (support)

Front 40

What is O Layer of soil composed of?

Back 40

Dead organic matter (plants)

Front 41

What is the A Layer of soil composed of?

Back 41

Humus rich (decomposed organic matter)

Front 42

What is the B layer of soil composed of?

Back 42

Low organic matter (partially broken down,) clay and leeching occurs

Front 43

What is the C layer of soil composed of?

Back 43

Similar substance to parent rock

Front 44

What is genotype?

Back 44

Unique genetic constitution of an individual (unless you’re an identical twin)

Front 45

What is evolution?

Back 45

Any change in the genetic makeup of a population

Front 46

What is fitness?

Back 46

Reproductive success of an individual (fecundity)

Front 47

What are the 3 processes that influence selection?

Back 47

Physical condition, food resources and predation

Front 48

What is phenotype?

Back 48

Outward expression of the genotype

Front 49

What is the difference between phenotype and genotype?

Back 49

-Genotype is a set of instructions
-Phenotype is modified by the environment (environmental conditions) that affect growth and development

Front 50

What role do genes play?

Back 50

Encode proteins

Front 51

What is an allele?

Back 51

Different forms of a particular gene (or any segment of DNA)
-Different alleles can cause perceptible and measureable differences in phenotype

Front 52

What happens if an allele is defective?

Back 52

Can cause genetic disorders like sickle cell anemia and albinism

Front 53

What does heterozygous mean?

Back 53

2 different alleles

Front 54

What does homozygous mean?

Back 54

2 identical alleles

Front 55

How is a set of alleles inherited?

Back 55

Sexual reproduction: One set of alleles from both parent (mother and father)

Front 56

What are the 3 types of phenotypes?

Back 56

Dominant, Recessive, Co-Dominant

Front 57

What is phenotype plasticity?

Back 57

Environmentally induced variation in the phenotype

Front 58

Describe an optimal range of conditions.

Back 58

Above minimum required to maintain a population

Front 59

Describe a suitable range of conditions.

Back 59

Above minimum required to maintain an organism (limited fitness)

Front 60

Describe a marginal range of conditions.

Back 60

Above minimum required to maintain critical function (no fitness)

Front 61

What is acclimation?

Back 61

Reversible change in structure
-Ex: Thicker fur in the winter, increase blood cell numbers at higher elevations, smaller leaves in a drier season.

Front 62

What is the reaction norm?

Back 62

Observed relationship between the phenotype and environment
-A given phenotype gives rise to different phenotypes under different environmental conditions

Front 63

How do you determine what is plasticity and what is evolution?

Back 63

Reciprocal Transplant Experiment
-Switch individuals between 2 locations
-Compare observed phenotypes:
1. Kept in own environment
2. Transplanted to different environment

Front 64

What 5 main factors of life history that make up the schedule of an organisms life?

Back 64

1. Age of maturity
2. Number of reproductive events
3. Allocation of energy to reproduction
4. Number of size and offspring
5. Life span

Front 65

What influences life histories?

Back 65

-Body plan and life style of an organism
-Physical conditions
-Food supply
-Predators
-Other biotic factors (competition, etc)

Front 66

What are 3 alternative strategies to plasticity in extreme environments?

Back 66

1. Migration
2. Storage
3. Dormancy

Front 67

What is migration?

Back 67

Moving to another region where conditions are more favorable (ex: birds, butterflies, etc)

Front 68

What is irruptive behavior?

Back 68

Response to resource limitations (owls, locusts, etc)

Front 69

Why would organisms use storage?

Back 69

So they can rely on resources accumulated under more favorable conditions
-Ex: Cacti store water during rainy periods. Some animals in polar region store fat. Some mammals/birds cache food supplies (store it up, like squirrels)

Front 70

What is dormancy?

Back 70

Becoming inactive
-Ex: Trees shed leaves during drought. Mammals hibernate. Insects can reduce freezing point and decrease metabolic rate. Plant seeds and spores of bacteria and fungi

Front 71

What are 2 stimuli for extreme responses?

Back 71

-Proximate Factors: Cues used to access environmental factors but which do not directly affect well being.
-Ex: Day length, photo period
-Ultimate Factors: Features of the environment which directly affect well being
-Ex: Food supply

Front 72

What are proximate factors?

Back 72

Cues used to access environmental factors but which do not directly affect well being.
-Ex: Day length, photo period

Front 73

What are ultimate factors?

Back 73

Features of the environment which directly affect well being
-Ex: Food supply

Front 74

What are the 4 components of fitness?

Back 74

1. Maturity: Age of first reproduction
2. Parity: Number of reproductive episodes (yearly, bi yearly, once?)
3. Fecundity: Number of offspring per reproductive episode (one, a dozen, hundreds, etc)
4. Aging: Total length of life

Front 75

What is Lack's Proposal?

Back 75

-Why would arctic birds have bigger clutch size than tropical?


- Artificially increased number of eggs per clutch (moved more eggs into a nest)
-Test to see is # of offspring is limited by food supply
-7 is average. Take some away, still good chance most will survive. Add more, most or all die. Not enough food.

Front 76

How are life histories shaped by natural selection?

Back 76

-Contribute to reproductive success, thus influence fitness
-Vary in a consistent way with respect to environmental factors

Front 77

Explain the Slow Fast Continuum.

Back 77

1. Life history traits often vary consistently with respect to habitat or environmental conditions
2. Variation in one life history trait is often correlated with variation in another

Front 78

What are the benefits and costs of reproducing at a young age?

Back 78

BENEFITS
-Increase fecundity at that age

COST
-Reduce survival
-Reduce fecundity at later age(s)

Front 79

If there is a low probability of adult survival and high probability of offspring survival, when should the organism breed?

Back 79

ASAP. Make lots of babies!

Front 80

If there is a high probability of adult survival and low probability of offspring survival, when should the organism breed?

Back 80

Much later in life and have very few offspring.

Front 81

How is fecundity related to growth?

Back 81

-Increased fecundity in one year reduces growth, reduces fecundity in later years
-Shorter lived organism – optimal strategy emphasizes fecundity over growth
-Longer lived organism – optimal strategy emphasizes growth over fecundity

Front 82

What is semelparity?

Back 82

Organisms that breed once in lifetime and allocate all their stored resourced to reproduction
-Programmed death after: Salmon, century plant (agave), brown antechinus (mouse-like)

Front 83

What is iteroparity?

Back 83

Organisms that breed multiple times during lifespan

Front 84

When would an animal use central place foraging?

Back 84

-When animals are tied to a particular place
-Ex: Nest with offspring, must care for offspring

Front 85

How does distance affect foraging and fitness?

Back 85

-Increasing foraging range results:
-Greater potential for finding food
-Greater time investment, energy cost, risk in travel

-Animal must maximize the amount of food return per unit time

Front 86

When foraging, each food item has intrinsic value based on:

Back 86

1. Nutrient and energy content
2. Difficulty in handling prey
3. Potential danger of toxins

Front 87

What are the basics of sexual reproduction?

Back 87

-Most animals and plants do it
-Production of male and female haploid gametes (eggs and sperm) occurs by meiosis
-Gametes join (fertilization) to produce a diploid zygote: Develops into a new individual.

Front 88

How do progeny relate to their parents in asexual reproduction?

Back 88

Progeny are usually identical to another and to their single parent

Front 89

What are the costs of meiosis?

Back 89

-Only ½ of genetic material in each offspring comes from each parent
-Each offspring contributes 50% as much to the fitness as either parent

Front 90

When does the cost of meiosis not apply?

Back 90

-When individuals have both male and female function: Hermaphrodite
-When males contribute as much as females to the number of offspring produced (parental care)
-Male investment doubles number of offspring produced by female

Front 91

What is the advantage of sexual reproduction?

Back 91

-Production of genetically varied offspring
-This may be advantageous when environments also vary in time and space

Front 92

What is the disadvantage of sexual reproduction?

Back 92

-Gonads are expensive organs to produce and maintains
-Mating is risky behavior and costly

Front 93

What is the Red Queen Hypothesis?

Back 93

-Genetic variation represents an opportunity for hosts to produce offspring to which pathogens are not adapted
-Sex and genetic recombination provide a moving target for the evolution by pathogens of virulence
-Hosts continually change to stay ‘one step ahead’ of their pathogens
-“The Red Queen has to run faster and faster in order to keep still where she is.”

Front 94

What is the difference in reproduction success between males and females

Back 94

-Females: Reproductive success depends on her ability to make eggs
-Takes lots of resources to produce a single egg
-Males: Reproductive success depends on number of eggs he can fertilize
-Few resources to make lots of sperm

Front 95

What is the most common type of sexual reproduction?

Back 95

Promiscuity

Front 96

What is Promiscuity?

Back 96

-Males mate with as many females as possible
-Males only contribute their offspring with 1 thing: A set of genes
-No lasting pair bond

Front 97

What is polygamy?

Back 97

When a single individual of one sex forms “long term” bonds with more than one individual of the opposite sex

Front 98

What is the difference between polygyny and polyandry?

Back 98

1. Polygyny (harem)
-1 male, many females
-Common in many groups: Camels, birds, elk/deer

2. Polyandry
-1 female, many males
-Rare

Front 99

What is monogamy?

Back 99

-Formation of a lasting pair bond between one male and one female
-Pair bond persists through period where it is required to raise young
-Pair bond may last until death
-Monogamy is favored when males can contribute substantially to care of young

Front 100

Do males contribute to raising young in a male dominance polygamy?

Back 100

Nope.

Front 101

What are the benefits to males and females in extrapair copulations?

Back 101

-Benefits to males:
1. Increased fitness
2. Possible future mate acquisition
3. Insurance against mate’s infertility
-Benefits to females:
1. Fertility insurance
2. Genetically diverse young
3. Improved genetic quality of young
4. Access to resources

Front 102

What are the costs for males and females in extrapair copulations?

Back 102

-Costs for Females:
1. Male retaliation
2. Risk of injury
3. Harassment by extra pair males
-Costs for Males:
1. Sperm depletion
2. Increased risk of cuckoldry (raising someone else’s young)
3. Reduction of parental care
4. Increased likelihood of ‘divorce’

Front 103

What happens if differences among males that influence female choice are under genetic control?

Back 103

-Leads to sexual selection
-Leads to evolution of spectacular plumage and other seemingly outlandish displays
-Evolution of traits used in combat

Front 104

What are the consequences to sexual selection?

Back 104

-Typical result of sexual dimorphism
-Difference in outward appearance of males and females of the same species (color, size, plumage, etc)
-Traits which distinguish sex above the primary sexual organs are called secondary sexual characteristics
-Driven by female choice
-Widowbird: Loooong tail to attract females, also attracts predators.

Front 105

What is runaway sexual selection?

Back 105

When secondary sexual traits confer greater fitness

1. Handicap Principal: Male can survive even though he has handicap (big plumage/colors/etc)
2. Parasite Mediated Sexual Selection: Nice plumage = few parasites

Front 106

What is social behavior?

Back 106

-Includes all interactions among individuals of the same species
-These interactions range from cooperation to antagonism
-Consequences of these interactions for individuals are substantial: Affects individual fitness

Front 107

Why is territoriality established between species?

Back 107

-Prevents others from intruding resources.
-Resource that Is defensible (water/food/shelter)
-Rewards outweigh the cost of defense

Front 108

What are the costs and benefits to protecting territory?

Back 108

-Costs: Requires time, energy, risk of injury
-Benefits: Improves access to resources (food, nests, roost)

Front 109

What are Dominance Hierarchies?

Back 109

When individuals order themselves by social rank or status

Front 110

Why is it assumed that dominance hierarchies are evolved traits?

Back 110

Defense of individual territories may not always be practical for each individual.

Front 111

In any confrontation, participants must weight:

Back 111

1. Cost of fighting and benefit of winning
2. Likely outcome of the contest (death, injury, etc)
-Determining optimal behavior is complicated by each individual’s lack of knowledge about the behavior of the other participant

Front 112

What are benefits to group behaviors?

Back 112

Less individual vigilance (many individuals to look out for group)
-More time to do other activities (eating/drinking/bathing)
-Less likely to be specifically predated on

Front 113

What are the costs to group behaviors?

Back 113

-Rapid depletion of resources
-Forces flock to move more frequently

Front 114

In social interactions, who are donors and who are recipients?

Back 114

1. Donors: Initiate behavior
2. Recipients: Toward whom the behavior is directed

Front 115

What are the 4 classifications of fitness behaviors for donors and recipients?

Back 115

-Cooperation: Benefits donor and recipient (selected for)
-Selfishness: Benefits donor, not the recipient (selected for)
-Spitefulness: Benefits no one (selected against)
-Altruism: Benefits recipient at cost to donor

Front 116

What fitness behavior is most problematic behavior from an evolutionary standpoint and why?

Back 116

Altruism
-Reduced fitness of donor
-Increased fitness of recipient

Front 117

What is kin selection?

Back 117

-When an individual directs a behavior toward a close relative it influences the fitness of the individual it’s related to.

Front 118

What percentage of genes does the following kin share:
1. Offspring/Sibling
2. Cousins
3. Nieces/Nephews/Half Sibling

Back 118

1. 50%
2. 12.5%
3. 25%

Front 119

What is inclusive fitness?

Back 119

The total fitness of a gene responsible for a particular behavior

Front 120

Fitness of an altruistic gene is determined by:

Back 120

Influence on the fitness of the donor and on the fitness of the recipient, weighing how closely they are related (coefficient relationship)

Front 121

A gene promoting altruistic behavior will have a positive inclusive fitness if

Back 121

C < Br

-C: Cost to donor of altruistic act
-B: Benefit to recipient
-r: Probability that recipient carries a copy of same gene as donor

Front 122

When would genes for altruistic behaviors increase in a population?

Back 122

-Behaviors have low cost to the donor
-Behaviors are restricted to close relatives

Front 123

What is the game theory?

Back 123

Analyzes the outcome of behaviors and behavioral decisions when these outcomes depend on the behavior of the other players
-Predicts the individuals behavior based on best estimates of:
-The other contestant’s response
-Reward for winning

Front 124

In the hawk-dove game, what characteristics are in the dove?

Back 124

: Never compete over resources and share resources with other doves. Always yield to hawks.
-Altruistic behavior for doves

Front 125

In the hawk-dove game, what characteristics are in the hawk?

Back 125

Always competes for resources and takes all the rewards when it wins

Front 126

What is the payoff in the hawk-dove game for H vs H?

Back 126

H vs H: (0.5xB-C) for Hawk No Doves


-B: benefits (resources that increase fitness)
-C: Costs (of fighting)

Front 127

In the hawk-dove came, what is the payoff for H vs D?

Back 127

B for Hawk 0 for Dove


-B: benefits (resources that increase fitness)
-C: Costs (of fighting)

Front 128

In the hawk-dove came, what is the payoff for D vs D?

Back 128

No Hawks (0.5xB) for Dove


-B: benefits (resources that increase fitness)
-C: Costs (of fighting)

Front 129

When is it better to be a dove in the hawk dove game?

Back 129

When there is a cost of fighting, there is a cross over where it’s better to be a dove: Evolutionary Mixed Strategy

Front 130

When is it better to be a hawk int he hawk dove game?

Back 130

With no cost of fighting, it is much better to be a hawk.

Front 131

What is a population?

Back 131

Made up of individuals of a species within a particular area
-Each population lives in patches of suitable habitat

Front 132

What are habitats?

Back 132

-Naturally exist as a mosaic of different patches
-Causes many populations to be broken into somewhat isolated subpopulations

Front 133

What does population structure refer to?

Back 133

-Density and spacing of individuals within suitable habitats
-Proportion of individuals in various age classes
-Mating systems
-Genetic structure

Front 134

What is population dynamic?

Back 134

Changing in size over time because: births, deaths, immigration, emigration

Front 135

What is a fundamental niche?

Back 135

Range of physical conditions over which a species can persist

Front 136

What is a Realized Niche?

Back 136

Further constraints by predators, pathogens, competitors, etc

Front 137

What is Ecological Niche Modeling?

Back 137

Using when you know about the fundamental niche to predict the distribution or organisms

Front 138

What is Dispersion?

Back 138

Spacing of individuals in a population with respect to one another. Variety of patterns

Front 139

What are the 3 types of dispersion?

Back 139

-Clumped: Discrete groups
-Random: Distributed independently of one another (not expected)
-Evenly Spaced: Maintains a minimum distance from other individuals

Front 140

What causes evenly spaced dispersion

Back 140

-May arise from interactions among individuals
-Competition for resources
-Territoriality

Front 141

What causes clumped dispersion?

Back 141

May arise from
-Social predisposition to form groups
-Clumped distribution for resources
-Tendency for progeny to be near parents

Front 142

The degree to which subpopulations are isolated depend on what?

Back 142

-Distance from other subpopulations
-Nature of the intervening environment
-Mobility of the species

Front 143

What is the exception from populations existing in heterogeneous landscapes?

Back 143

Uniform habitats

Front 144

In the northern hemisphere, what are the conditions on the south facing slope?

Back 144

Warmer and drier

Front 145

In the northern hemisphere, what are the conditions on the north facing slope?

Back 145

Wetter and cooler

Front 146

Why are steep slopes xeric?

Back 146

They typically drain better and lead to arid environments

Front 147

Why are bottomland areas mesic?

Back 147

Typically near a river and moist, supports riparian forest