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General Biology

General Biology

by jsaguinaldo9, May 2011

Subjects: biology mcat

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291 Cards in this Set

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	-movement of particles from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration utilizing energy	Active Transport
	-viruses that can only infect bacteria	Bacteriophage
	-the site of photosynthesis in plants -contains chlorophyll, is semiautonomous, and has two cell membranes	Chloroplast
	-gives the cell mechanical support, maintains shape, and functions in motility -composed of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments	Cytokskeleton
	-passive movement of particles from region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration using carrier molecules -does not require energy	Facilitated Diffusion
	-membrane-bound vesicles that contains hydrolytic enzymes used for intracellular digestion	Lysosome
	-the site of aerobic respiration that provides the cell with a majority of its energy in the form of ATP -semiautonomous organelle enclosed by two membranes, with an intermembrane space between the two membranes and a matrix enclosed by their inner membrane	Mitochondria
	-organisms that require a host cell to express their genes and reproduce	Obligate Intracellular Parasites
	-passive movement of water from a region of higher water concentration to a region of lower water concentration; diffusion of water	Osmosis
	-passive movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration without the use of energy	Simple Diffusion
	-the difference in potential energy between the initial state (reactants) and the transition state -reactants must overcome the activation energy in order to undergo the reaction	Activation Energy
	-an enzyme with two or more active sites that can exist in more than one conformation, usually an active form or an inactive form	Allosteric Enzyme
	-an enzyme that requires cofactors in order to become catalytically active	Apoenzyme
	-molecule that inhibits the activity of an enzyme by directly binding to the active site of the enzyme -this type of inhibition is usually reversible and can be overcome by increasing the substrate concentration	Competitive Inhibitor
	-protein catalyst that accelerate reactions by reducing the activation energy without being consumed or altered by the reaction -only affect rate of reaction and not the amounts of product formed	Enzymes
	-the difference in potential energy between the initial state (reactants) and the final state (products) -negative delta G indicates spontaneous reaction, whereas a positive delta G indicates a nonspontaneous reaction	Free Energy Change
	-an active enzyme containing all necessary cofactors	Holoenzyme
	-theory of enzyme catalysis which states that the partial binding of a substrate to an enzyme alters the structure of the enzyme so that its active site becomes complementary to the structure of the substrate, enabling binding	Induced Fit Hypothesis
	-theory of enzyme catalysis stating that the active site's structure is complementary to the structure of the substrate	Lock and Key Theory
	-the ratio of the breakdown of an enzyme-substrate complex to its formation in simple reactions -also V max -low value indicates strong affinity between an enzyme and its substrate	Michaelis Constant (Km)
	-molecule that inhibits the activity of an enzyme by binding to a regulatory site on the enzyme, thereby changing the conformation of the enzyme -because these inhibitors do not directly compete with the substrate, increasing substrate concentration usually has little effect on the catalytic rate	Noncompetitive Inhibitor
	-a molecule, other than the substrate, that can bind to the allosteric site of an enzyme and either increase its activity (allosteric activator) or decrease its activity (allosteric inhibitor)	Regulator
	-enzyme that must undergo processing before it can catalyze reactions	Zymogen
	-the cycle begins when the two-carbon acetyl group from acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetate to form citric acid -this product then proceeds through a series of reactions that result in the regeneration of oxaloacetate and the production of three NADH, one FADH2 and one GTP	Citric Acid Cycle
	-a chain of cytochromes and other proteins in the inner membranes of the mitrochondria that transfers electrons fron NADH and FADH2 to oxygen -the energy released from the series of oxidations is used to create a proton gradient, which ATP synthase then uses to synthesize ATP	Electron Transport Chain
	-molecules involved in cell respiration that serve as energy stores, releasing energy when oxidized to NAD+, NADP+, and FAD	Energy Carriers (NAD+, NADP+, FAD)
	-an organism that makes ATP by aerobic respiration if oxygen is present, but that can switch to fermentation when oxygen is not available	Facultative Anaerobe
	-fats must be activated using two ATP molecules before they can be converted into acetyl CoA and enter the citric acid cycle	Fatty Acid Activation
	-process by which the cell is able to replenish the NAD+ used during glycolysis by oxidizing NADH -in this prcess, pyruvate (the product of glycolysis) is reduced by NADH to form ethanol (in yeast) or lactic acid (in humans)	Fermentation
	-the form in which carbohydrates are primarily stored in the liver -is easily converted to glucose-6-phosphate when the body needs it	Glycogen
	-through a series of enzymatic reactions in the cytoplasm, glucose is converted into two molecules of pyruvate -the energy released in this process is used to produce a net yield of two ATP and two NADH molecules	Glycolysis
	-the coupling of the oxidation of NADH, NADPH, and FADH2 with the phosphorylation of ADP -the electron transport chain utilizes oxidative phosphorylation to produce ATP	Oxidative Phosphorylation
	-the first stage of cellular respiration -pyruvate is oxidized to acetate, which then combines with coenzyme A to form acetyl CoA in the mitochondrial matrix -the process results in the formation of one NADH per pyruvate molecule or two NADH per glucose molecule	Pyruvate Decarboxylation
	-the transfer of phosphate group from an organic compound to ADP -glycolysis and the citric acid cycle utilizes it to produce ATP	Substrate Level Phosphorylation
	-genes coding for alternative forms of a given trait	Alleles
	-method of asexual reproduction by which prokaryotic divide -the circular DNA molecules replicates and then moves to opposite sides of the cell -the cell then divides into two daughter cells of equal size	Binary Fission
	-the portion of the cell containing the centrioles	Centrosome
	-chromosomes in their uncoiled active state -is not visible under a light microscope	Chromatin
	-outer layer of cells surrounding the oocyte -these cells are secreted by follicle cells	Corona Radiata
	-the exchange of genetic material between chromosomes (usually homologous chromosomes that occurs during prophase I of meiosis -aids in evolution and genetic diversity by unlinking linked genes	Crossing Over
	-cells that have two copies of each chromsome, usually one from the mother and one from the father -eukaryotic somatic cells	Diploid
	-the separation of homologous chromosomes during anaphase I of meiosis	Disjunction
	-results when two ova are fertilized by two different sperm -since the two resulting embryos develop from distinct zygotes, they do not have identical alleles	Dizygotic Twins
	-a multilayered sac of cells that protects and nourishes the developing ovum	Follicle
	-cells that have only one copy of each chromsome -germ cells in humans	Haploid
	-chromsomes in a diploid cell that contains different alleles for the same trait at corresponding loci	Homologous Chromosomes
	-a short rest period between meisosis I and meiosis II during which DNA is not replicated -an ovum remains in interkinesis until it is fertilized by a sperm	Interkinesis
	-phase of the cell cycle in which cell division does not take place -includes the G1 phase, S phase, and G2 phase -cells in this phase may or may not be growing	Interphase
	-also referred to as "cells of Leydig" -located in the testes and secrete testosterone and other androgens	Interstitial Cells
	-a two-phase cell division in germ cells that results in the formation of four haploid cells from one diploid cell	Meiosis
	-cell division and/or nuclear division in somatic cells that results in the daughter nucleus receiving a full complement of the organism's genome	Mitosis
	-results when a zygote splits into two embryos -since both embryos contain identical alleles, they are often called identical twins	Monozygotic Twins
	-the development of an unfertilized egg into an adult organism with haploid cells	Parthenogenisis
	-a small, short-lived haploid cell created during oogensis that receives very little cytoplasm, organelles, and nutrients	Polar Body
	-diploid cells that undergo meiosis I to form two haploid secondary spermatocytes	Primary Spermatocytes
	-the fluid discharged during ejaculation -consists of sperm cells and seminal fluid (fluid from the prostate and bulbouretheral glands)	Semen
	-located in the testes, are the site of sperm production	Seminiferous Tubules
	-after replication, each chromosome consists of two identical chromatids held together at central region called the centromere -after the mitotic spindle pulls them apart, each chromatid is referred to as a chromsome	Sister Chromatids
	-all cells excluding the germ (reproductive) cells	Somatic Cells
	-mature sperm specialized for transporting the genetic information from the male to the ovum	Spermatozoa
	-four chromatids that result when a pair of homologous chromosomes synapse during prophase I of meiosis	Tetrad
	-inner layer of cells surrounding the oocyte -these cells are secreted by follicle cells -penetration by the sperm forces the secondary oocyte to undergo meiosis II	Zona Pellucida
	-the embryonic membrane that contains the growing embryo's waste products	Allantosis
	-the innermost extraembryonic membrane that contains amniotic fluid in which the growing fetus is suspended	Amnion
	-the process by which a morula develops into a blastula with a fluid-filled cavity called a blastocoel	Blastulation
	-the outermost extraembryonic membrane; contributes to the formation of the placenta	Chorion
	-a cleavage whose future differentiation pathways are determined	Determinate Cleavage
	-a shunt that connects the pulmonary artery to the aorta in order to bypass the fetal lung	Ductus Arteriosus
	-a shunt that connects the umbilical vein to the inferior vena cava in order to bypass the fetal liver	Ductus Venosus
	-the outermost of the three primary germ layers, which gives rise to the skin and the nervous system	Ectoderm
	-the innermost of the three primary germ layers, which give rise tot he linings of the digestive and respiratory tracts, and to parts of the liver, pancreas, thyroid, and bladder	Endoderm
	-the mucosal lining of the uterus where embryo implants -progesterone is necessary for the maintenance during pregnancy	Endometrium
	-a shunt that connects the right atrium in order to bypass the fetal lung	Foramen Ovale
	-the process by which a single-layer blastula becomes a three-layered gastrula	Gastrulation
	-a cleavage that results in cells maintaining their totipotency, or ability to develop into a complete organism	Indeterminate Cleavage
	-the influence of a group of cells sometimes called the organizer on the development of other cells -achieved by chemical substances known as inducers	Induction
	-the group of cells in a blastocyst (mammalian blastula) that develop into the embryo	Inner Cell Mass
	-primary layer that lies in between ectoderm and the endoderm -gives rise to the muscuoskeletal system, circulatory system, excretory system, gonads, connective tissue throughout the body, and portions of the digestive and respiratory organs	Mesoderm
	-cells at the tip of the neural fold; this group of cells gives rise to many components of the peripheral nervous system	Neural Crest Cells
	-the organ formed by the uterus and the extraembryonic membranes of the fetus -contains a network of capillaries through which exchange between the fetal circulation and maternal circulation takes place	Placenta
	-a system of tubules that provides channels for ion flow throughout the muscle fibers to facilitate the propagation of an action potential	Transverse Tubules
	-fast twitch muscle fibers -they are primarily anaerobic and fatigue more easily	White Fibers
	-an alkaline fluid synthesized in the liver, stored in the gall bladder, and released into the duodenum -aids in the emulsification, digestion, and absorption of fats	Bile
	-a valve between the esophagus and the stomach that prevents the content of the stomach from going back up through the esophagus	Cardiac Sphincter
	-enzymatic breakdown of large molecules into smaller molecules	Chemical Digestion
	-a hormone that is secreted by the duodenum in response to the presence of chyme -stimulates the release of bile and pancreatic enzymes into the small intestine	Cholecystokinin (CCK)
	-combination of partially digested food and acid that forms in the stomach	Chyme
	-a flap of cartilage that covers the glottis when swallowing food in order to prevent food particles from entering the larynx	Epiglottis
	-located in the stomach; secretes HCl and various enzymes (e.g., pepsin) when stimulated by gastrin	Gastric Glands
	-carries nutrients (monosaccharides, amino acids, and small fatty acids) absorbed in the small intestine to the liver, where they are modified to enter circulation	Hepatic Portal Vein
	-secretes maltase, sucrase, lactase, aminopeptidase, dipeptidase, and enterokinase into the small intestine	Intestinal Glands
	-section of the GI tract that consist of the cecum, the colon, and the rectum -the major function is to absorb salts and water	Large Intestine
	-breakdown of food particles into smaller particles through such activities as biting, chewing, and churning	Mechanical Digestion
	-secretes pancreatic amylase, trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase, and lipase into the small intestine	Pancreas
	-involuntary muscular contractions of the esophagus that push food down the digestive tract	Peristalsis
	-glands located in the walls of the stomach that secrete the hormone gastrin in the response to certain substances in food	Pyloric Glands
	-a valve between the stomach and the small intestine that regulates the flow of chyme into the small intestine	Pyloric Sphincter
	-can be subdivided into three sections: the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum -most digestion takes place in the duodenum and most absorption takes place in the jejunum and the ileum	Small Intestine
	-fingerlike projections that extend out of the small intestine in order to increase surface area for maximum absorption	Villi
	-the amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled after a normal exhalation	Expiratory Reserve Volume
	-an increase in the rate of inhalation -lack of oxygen or an increase in blood pH	Hyperventilation
	-the space between the two membranes (visceral pleura and parietal pleura) that covers the lungs	Intrapleural Space
	-the contraction of the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles increases the volume of the thoracic cavity, reducing the pressure in the intrapleural space -this decrease in the pressure creates a vacuum that causes the lungs to suck in air	Negative Pressure Breathing
	-air travels through the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and finally alveoli (site of gas exchange)	Passage of Air During Inhalation
	-the amount of air that must remain in the lung at all times in order to prevent lung collapse	Residual Volume
	-a liquid substance produced by the lung that reduces surface tension in the alveoli -prevents lung collapse and decreases the effort needed to expand the lungs (inhale)	Surfactant
	-the volume of air that is normally inhaled or exhaled with each breath	Tidal Volume
	-the maximum volume of air that the lung can hold, which includes the vital capacity and the residual volume	Total Lung Capacity
	-the maximum volume of air that can be inhaled or exhaled by the lungs with each breath	Vital Capacity
	-immunity resulting from the production of antibodies during a previous infection or a vaccination	Active Immunity
	-vessels that carry blood away from the heart -these vessels are muscular and do not have valves	Arteries
	-the two thin-walled upper chambers of the heart -the right receives deoxygenated blood from the vena cava, while the left receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary vein	Atria
	-valves located between the atria and the ventricles (tricuspid valve and mitrial valve)	Atrioventricular Valves
	-proteins found on the erythrocyte cell surface -three antigens used to differentiate blood groups are A, B, and Rh -if a host organism is transfused with erythrocytes containing antigens that the host does not have, an immune response will be triggered, such as in the case of erythroblastosis fetalis	Blood Antigens
	-increasing the concentration of H+ and CO2 reduces the hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen, allowing for the transfer of oxygen to cells that require it most	Bohr Effect
	-blood vessels composed of a single layer of endothelial cells, facilitating exchange between the blood and interstitial fluid	Capillaries
	-enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of carbonic acid to carbon dioxide and water as well as the formation of carbonic acid from carbon dioxide and water	Carbonic Anhydrous
	-the total volume of blood the left ventricle pumps into circulation per minute -the cardiac output can be increased by increasing either the heart rate or the stroke volume	Cardiac Output
	-blood vessels that supply the heart with oxygenated blood	Coronary Arteries
	-blood vessels that transport deoxygenated blood from the heart toward the right atrium	Coronary Veins
	-the stage of the heart cycle in which the heart muscle relaxes and collects blood into its four chambers	Diastole
	-the oxygen-carrying component of blood (red blood cells) -anaerobic cells, which lack organelles, are packed with hemoglobin and have a characteristic biconcave, dislike shape that facilitates gas exchange and mobility within blood vessels	Erythrocytes
	-protein responsible for blood clotting	Fibrin
	-a protein found in erythrocytes made up of four polypeptide chains, each containing a heme group -is responsible for transporting oxygen from the alveoli to the cells	Hemoglobin
	-the synthesis of specific antibodies by activated B-cells in response to an antigen -these antibodies bind to the antigen and either clump together to become insoluble or attract other cells that engulf them	Humoral Immunity
	-a protein antibody produced in response to specific foreign substance that recognizes and binds to that specific antigen and triggers an immune response	Immunoglobulins
	-a large vein that returns deoxygenated blood from the lower body and the extremities to the right atrium of the heart	Inferior Vena Cava
	-white blood cells; the component of blood in cell defense and immunity -neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils, lymphocytes, and monocytes	Leukocytes
	-swelling along the lymph vessels where lymph is filtered by leukocytes to remove antigens	Lymph Nodes
	-a system of vessels and lymph nodes that collect interstitial fluids and return them to the circulatory system, thereby maintaining a plasma protein and fluid balance -the lymphatic system is also involved in lipid absorption and lymphocyte production	Lymphatic System
	-a valve located between the left atrium and the left ventricle -the valve consists of two cusps and prevents backflow of blood from the ventricles to the atria	Mitral Valve
	-a short-lived immunity resulting from the antibodies into an individual who does not produce those antibodies	Passive Immunity
	-the electrical impulse originates in the sinoatrial (SA) node, located in the right atrium -it then travels through the atrioventricular (AV) node, then through the bundle of His, and finally through Purkinje fibers	Path of Electrical Impulses
	-circulatory routes in which blood travels through two capillary beds before returning to the heart -some examples include the hepatic portal system, the renal portal system, and the hypophyseal portal system	Portal Systems
	-the initial response to a specific antigen -T and B lymphocytes are activated and specific antibodies and memory cells to the antigen are produced	Primary Response
	-subsequenct infections by antigens trigger a more immediate response by the memory cells produced during the primary response	Secondary Response
	-valves that prevent backflow of blood from the arteries back into the ventricles (aortic valve and pulmonic valve)	Semilunar Valves
	-a large vein that returns deoxygenated blood from the head and neck regions to the right atrium of the heart	Superior Vena Cava
	-the stage of the heart cycle in which the heart muscle contracts and pumps blood	Systole
	-a valve located between the right atria and the right ventricle -the valve consists of three cusps and prevents backflow of blood from the ventricle to the atria	Tricuspid Valve
	-vessels that carry blood toward the heart -these vessels are thin-walled and have valves to prevent backflow	Veins
	-the muscular lower chambers of the heart -the right pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs through the pulmonary artery, while the left pumps oxygenated blood throughout the body	Ventricles
	-also known as vasopressin -acts on the collecting duct to increase water reabsorption -produced by the hypothalamus and stored in the posterior pituitary	Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
	-a steroid hormone produced in the adrenal cortex that is responsible for reabsorption of sodium and water and the excretion of potassium	Aldosterone
	-portion of the nephron not permeable to water -as the filtrate flows up the ascending limb through decreasing concentration of the interstitial fluid, Na+ is actively pumped out of the filtrate, decreasing filtrate concentration	Ascending Limb
	-portion of the nephron permeable to water and ions -as the filtrate flows down, the increasing concentration of the interstitial fluid, the filtrate is concentrated further -the degree of water reabsorption is controlled by the action of the hormone ADH and aldoesterone	Collecting Duct
	-the layer of skin beneath the epidermis that is subdivided into the papillary layer and the reticular layer -it contains the sweat glands, sense organs, blood vessels, and the bulbs of hair follicles, and is derived from the mesoderm	Dermis
	-portion of the nephron permeable only to water -the filtrate becomes more concentrated (loses water) as it travels through the descending limb due to the increasing concentration of the interstitial fluid	Descending Limb of the Loop of Henle
	-the outermost layer of skin, which is composed of the following sublayers: stratum basalis, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, and stratum corneum -serves as protective barrier against microbial attack -derived from the ectoderm	Epidermis
	-the material that passes from the blood vessels into Bowman's capsule	Filtrate
	-network of capillaries within Bowman's capsule that serves as the site of filtration -blood cells and proteins are too large to be filtered, but ions, glucose, and amino acids readily pass into the filtrate	Glomerulus
	-a process in the liver by which glucose is produced using by-products of glycolysis, lipids, or fats	Gluconeogenesis
	-layer of loose connective tissue below the dermis that binds the dermis to the body	Hypodermis
	-the functional unit of the kidney -can be subdivided into Bowman's capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, descending limb of the loop of Henle, ascending limb of the loop of the Henle, distal convoluted tubule, and collecting duct	Nephron
	-maintenance of water and solute concentration	Osmoregulation
	-site where glucose, amino acids, and other important organic molecules are reabsorbed -the proximal convoluted tubules like in the cortex of the kidney	Proximal Convoluted Tubule
	-maintenance of a constant internal body temperature	Thermogregulation
	-synthesizes and releases corticosteroids (including glucorticoids and mineralcorticoids) when stimulated by adrenocorticoptropic hormone (ACTH)	Adrenal Cortex
	-synthesizes and releases epinephrine and norepinephrine, which stimulate an increase in the metabolic rate and blood glucose levels	Adrenal Medulla
	-synthesized and released by the anterior pituitary, stimulates the adrenal cortex to synthesize and secrete gluococorticoids -regulated by corticotrophin-releasing hormones (CRF), which is released by the hypothalamus	Adrenocorticotropic Hormone ACTH
	-connects the vasculature of the fetus to the placenta	Umbilical Cord
	-fertilized egg	Zygote
	-the bones of the pelvis, the pectoral girdles, and the limbs	Appendicular Skeleton
	-the skull, vertebral column, and bones of the chest	Axial Skeleton
	-a firm, elastic, translucent connective tissue consisting of collagenous fibers embedded in chrondrin -produced by cells called chrondrocytes -the principal component of embryonic skeletons and can harden and calcify into bone	Cartilage
	-much more dense than spongy bone, consists of haversian system (osteons)	Compact Bone
	-the strengthening of contraction that results when the stimuli are so frequent that muscle cannot fully relax -the stronger contraction is due to the incorporation of more muscle fibers	Frequency Summation
	-cells in the bone tissue that secretes the organic constituents of the bone matrix -develop into osteocytes	Osteoblasts
	-the mucoal lining of the uterus where the embryo implants -progesterone is necessary for the maintance during pregancy	Endometrium
	-a shunt that connects the right atrium to the left atrium in order to bypass the fetal lung	Foramen Ovale
	-the process by which a single-later blastula becomes a three-layered gastrula	Gastrulation
	-a cleavage that results in cells maintaining their totopotency, or ability to develop into a complete organism	Indeterminate Cleavage
	-the influence of a group of cells sometimes called the organizer of the development of other cells -achieved by chemical substances known as inducers	Induction
	-the group of cells in a blastocyst (mammalian blastula) that develop into the embryo	Inner Cell Mass
	-primary germ layer that lies in between the ectoderm and the endoderm -gives rise to the musculoskeletal system, circulatory system excretory system, gondads, connective tissue throughout the body, and portions of the digestive and respiratory organs	Mesoderm
	-cells at the tip of the neural fold; this group of cells gives rise to many components of the peripheral nervous system	Neural Crest Cells
	-connects the vasculature of the fetus to the placenta	Umbilical Cord
	-the bones of the pelvis, the pectoral girdles, and the limbs	Appendicular Skeleton
	-cells in the bone matrix that are involved in bone degradation	Osteoclasts
	-the structural unit of compact bone that consists of a central canal, called the haversian canal, surrounded by a number of concentric rings of bony matrix called lamellae	Osteons
	-slow-twitch muscle fibers -they are primarily aerobic and contain many mitochondria and myoglobin	Red Fibers
	-a short period of time immediately following an action potential in which neurons or muscle cells are unresponsive to a stimulus -in some cases, a stimulus that is much larger than the threshold causes an action potential in a cell	Refractory Period
	-the structural unit of striated muscle -it is composed of thin (mostly actin) and thick (mostly myosin) filaments	Sarcomere
	-a modified form of endoplasmic reticulum, which stores calcium that is used to trigger contraction when the muscle is stimulated	Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
	-lighter and less than compact bone, it consist of an interconnecting lattice of bony spicules (trabeculae) -the cavities between the spicules contain bone marrow	Spongy Bone
	-the minimal value that must be reached in order for the system to respond -muscle fibers and neurons exhibit an all-or-none response, where the system initiates an action potential only if the threshold value is met	Threshold Value
	-synthesizes and releases many vital hormones, including follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, adrenocorticoptropic hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, prolactin, endorphins, and growth hornomes ("FLAT PEG") -under the hormonal control of the hypothalamus	Anterior Pituitary
	-hormone synthesized and released by the thyroid gland that decreases plasma Ca2+ concentration	Calcitonin
	-tissue that forms from the collapsed ovarian follicle -produces and secretes progesterone and estrogen	Corpus Luteum
	-glands that synthesize and secrete hormones into the circulatory system -examples include the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pineal gland, thymus, pancreas, testes, ovaries, adrenal glands, thyroid gland, and parathyroid glands	Endocrine Glands
	-synthesized and released by the anterior pituitary -inhibit perception of pain	Endorphins
	-hormone synthesized and released by the ovaries, the ovarian follicles, the corpus luteum, and the placenta -stimulates the development of the female reproductive tract and secondary sexual characteristics and is partly responsible for the LH spike that causes ovulation -along with progesterone produced by the placenta during the second trimester of pregnancy, helps inhibit the onset of a new menstrual cycle by blocking GnRH release	Estrogen
	-glands that synthesize and secrete substances though ducts -the gall bladder is an example	Exocrine Gland
	-synthesized released by the anterior pituitary, stimulates maturation of ovarian follicles in females and maturation of the seminiferous tubules and sperm production in males -regulated by estrogen and gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)	Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
	-produced and secreted by the alpha cells of the pancreas, glucagon increases blood glucose concentration by promoting gluconeogenesis and the conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver	Glucagon
	-synthesized and released by the adrenal cortex, raise blood glucose levels while decreasing protein synthesis	Glucocorticoids
	-synthesized and released by the anterior pituitary, stimulates bone and muscle growth as well as glucose conservation -inhibited by somatostatin and secreted by the hypothalamus	Growth Hormone (GH)
	-produced and secreted by the beta cells of the pancreas, decreases blood glucose concentrations by facilitating the uptake of glucose by muscle and adipose cells and the conversion of glucose to glycogen in muscle and liver cells	Insulin
	-synthesized and released by the anterior pituitary, LH stimulates ovulation and formation of the corpus luteum -regulated by estrogen, progesterone, and gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)	Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
	-synthesized and released by the parathyroid gland, increases blood Ca2+ concentration by increasing Ca2+ reabsorption in the kidneys and by stimulating calcium release from bone	Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
	-polar hormones incapable of permeating the cell membrane that bind to surface receptors and act through secondary messengers	Peptide Hormones
	-stores and releases hormones (oxytocin and ADH) synthesized by the hypothalamus -the release of these hormones is triggered by an action potential that originates in the hyopthalamus	Posterior Pituitary
	-hormone synthesized and released by the ovaries, corpus luteum, and placenta -during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, the corpus luteum secretes it stimulates the development and maintenance of the endometrial walls for implantation of the embryo	Progesterone
	-a hormone synthesized and released by the anterior pituitary that stimulates milk production and secretion in female mammary glands	Prolactin
	-produced and secreted by the delta cells of the pancreas, inhibits the release of glucagon and insulin	Somatostatin
	-nonpolar hormones that permeate the cell membrane and act by binding intracellular receptors	Steroid Hormones
	-hormones secreted by the interstitial cells of the testes -responsible for embryonic sexual differentiation, male sexual development, and the maintenance of masculine secondary sexual charateristics	Testosterone
	-synthesized and released by the thyroid gland, (thyroxine, T4, and triiodothyronine) stimulate cellular respiration as well as protein and fatty acid synthsis and degradation	Thyroid Hormones
	-synthesized and released by the anterior pituitary, stimulates the thyroid gland to absorb iodine so that it can synthesize and secrete thyroid-releasing hormone (TRH), which is released by the hypothalamus	Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone
	-a sharp change in the membrane potential of neurons or muscle cells caused by a change in the selective permeability to K+ and Na+ using ion-gated channels -action potentials are all-or-none events	Action Potential
	-neurons that carry information to the central nervous system	Afferent Neurons
	-the portion of the neuron that connects the cell body (soma) to the axon -the impulses the neuron receives from all the dendrites are summed up to determine whether an action potential will be initiated	Axon Hillock
	-consists of the brain and the spinal cord	Central Nervous System
	-muscular tissue attached to the lens that is used to control the len's shape	Ciliary Muscle
	-transparent covering in front of the eye that refracts light and helps keep the eye in focus	Cornea
	-connects the brain's left hemisphere with its right hemisphere and correlates their activities	Corpus Callosum
	-an extension of the neuron that transmits impulses toward the cell body	Dendrite
	-a process that occurs when the voltage-gated Na+ channels open, allowing Na+ to rush into the cell and depolarize it	Depolarization
	-neurons that carry information from the central nervous system to other parts of the body	Efferent Neurons
	-type of sensory receptor that monitors external signals such as light, sound, and temperature	Exteroceptor
	-a group of neural cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system	Ganglia
	-type of sensory receptor that monitors blood pressure, the partial pressure of Co2 in the blood, and pH of blood within the body	Interoceptors
	-muscular tissue that controls the amount of light allowed in through the pupil	Iris
	-the part of the brain that controls such functions breathing and heartbeat	Medulla Oblongata
	-reflex pathway that has only one synapse between the sensory neuron and the motor neuron (e.g., knee-jerk reflex)	Monosynaptic Reflex
	-insulating substance that surrounds axons -action potentials cannot take place in areas of the axon that are myelinated	Myelin Sheath
	-a protein that hydrolyzes one ATP to transport three Na+ out of the cell for every two K+ it transports into the cell	Na+/K+ Pump
	-chemical messengers released from synaptic clefts of a neuron that can bind and stimulate a postsynaptic cell	Neurotransmitters
	-gaps between segments of myelin sheath where action potentials can take place, allowing for saltatory conduction	Nodes of Ranvier
	-all neurons that are not part of the central nervous system, including sensory and motor neurons that connect to the central nervous system -can be divided into somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system	Peripheral Nervous System
	-light-sensitive proteins	Photoreceptors
	-type of sensory receptor that monitors the body's position in space	Proprioceptor
	-a process that occurs when the voltage-gated Na+ channels close and voltage-gated K+ channels open, allowing K+ to rush out of the cell and repolarize it	Repolarization
	-the charge difference (maintaining by the Na+/K+ pump) across the cell membrane of a neuron or a muscle cell while at rest	Resting Potential
	-a thin layer of cells containing photoreceptors at the back of the eye that converts light signals into neural impulses	Retina
	-a means by which action potentials jump from node to node along an axon	Saltatory Conduction
	-cells that produce myelin in the peripheral nervous system	Schwann Cells
	-the white covering of the eye -made up of connective tissue	Sclera
	-division of the peripheral nervous system that is responsible for voluntary movement	Somatic Nervous System
	-the space between the axion terminal of one neuron and the dendrite of another neuron where neurotransmitters are released	Synapse
	-ends of axons that form one side of the synaptic cleft -the location where neurotransmitters are stored	Synaptic Terminals
	-a cross between two organisms where two distinct traits are being studied	Dihybrid Cross
	-the degree to which an organism expresses its genotype	Expressivity
	-the genetic makeup of an individual	Genotype
	-organisms that contains two different alleles for the same gene on corresponding chromosomes	Heterozygous
	-organisms that contain two identical copies of the same gene on corresponding chromosomes	Homozygous
	-describe a situation in which an organism heterozygous for a trait will have a phenotype that is intermediate to both alleles -neither allele, therefore, is dominant or recessive	Incomplete Dominance
	-a form of chromosomal rearrangement in which a portion of a chromosome breaks off and rejoins the same chromosome in the reverse position	Inversion
	-genes that are located on the same chromosome	Linked Genes
	-the alleles of different genes assort independently during meiosis -we now know that this is true only for unlinked genes	Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment
	-Mendel's postulation that there are alternate versions of genes that account for genetic variation -each individual has two alleles for each gene, one maternal and one paternal in origin -during meiosis, there two alleles separate into two different gametes	Mendel's Law of Segregation
	-a cross between two organisms where only one trait is being studied	Monohybrid Cross
	-the failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to seperate properly during meiosis I and meiosis II, respectively -this usually results in gametes that lack certain genes or have multiple copies of those genes	Nondisjunction
	-the percentage of people in a population with a certain genotype who express the associated phenotype	Penetrance
	-the physical manifestation of an individual's genotype	Phenotype
	-the proportion of gametes that receive recombinant chromosomes -if the recombination frequency of two particular traits is high, then it can be inferred that they lie far apart on the same chromosome	Recombination Frequency
	-a cross between an organism of an undetermined genotype and another that is homozygous recessive for the trait of interest	Test Cross
	-a form of chromosomal rearrangement in which a portion of one chromosome adds on to a nonhomologous chromosome	Translocation
	-an allele that is normal to the population	Wild Type
	-nonoverlapping group of three bases that code for a particular amino acid	Codon
	-enzyme that covalently links the Okazaki fragments together	DNA ligase
	-an enzyme that polymerizes a complementary DNA strand in the 5' to 3' direction using a template DNA strand -a primer is necessary	DNA Polymerase
	-plasmids that have the ability to integrate into the host genome	Episomers
	-segments of coding eukaryotic mRNA that are spliced together and translated	Exons
	-mutation in which a number of nucleotides (except multiples of three) are either deleted or inserted -such mutations lead to a shift in the DNA reading frame and often result in the translocation of nonfunctional proteins	Frame Shift Mutation
	-an enzyme that unwinds the double helix of a DNA molecule, allowing replication to take place	Helicase
	-a system in which a repressor bound to an operator prevents transcription -addition of inducers can activate an inactive inducible system by preventing the repressor from binding to the operator	Inducible System
	-segments of noncoding eukaryotic mRNA that are spliced out and not translated	Introns
	-the strand of DNA that is synthesized in small fragments called Okazaki fragments and then ligated together -the Okazaki fragments are synthesized in the 5' to 3' direction, but the overall synthesis is in the 3' to 5' direction -the template strand has a 5' to 3' polarity	Lagging Strand
	-the strand of DNA that is continuously synthesized in the 5' to 3' direction -the template strand is read in the 3' to 5' direction	Leading Strand
	-phase of viral replication in which the DNA of the bacteriophage becomes integrated in the host's genome and replicates as the bacteria replicates	Lysogenic Cycle
	-phase in viral replication in which the host cell is lysed and releases new virions	Lytic Cycle
	-class of RNA that is created from the transcription of DNA and serves as the template for protein synthesis during translation	mRNA (Messenger RNA)
	-small fragments of DNA that form the lagging strand	Okazaki Fragments
	-mutation in which one nucleotide base is substituted by another -the protein products are usually functional	Point Mutation
	-in eukaryotes, once an RNA molecule is transcribed, it is spliced and a 5' cap and 3' poly-adenine tail are added -RNA in prokaryotes does not undergo processing	Post-transcriptional RNA Processing
	-a type of RNA polymerase that adds short segments of RNA during replication to which DNA polymerase can add nucleotides -DNA replication cannot be initiated	Primase
	-adenine and guanine -they have characteristic bicyclic nitrogenous bases and pair with pyrimidines in double-stranded DNA in order to keep the width of the strand constant	Purines
	-cytosine and thymine -they have characteristic monocyclic nitrogenous bases and pair with purines in double-stranded DNA in order to keep the width of the strand constant	Pyrimidines
	-a system that is normally "turned on" but can be inactivated by the addition of a repressor or a corepressor	Repressible System
	-an enzyme in retroviruses that uses RNA strands as templates for synthesizing cDNA molecules	Reverse Transcriptase
	-sugar is ribose -adenine pairs with uracil instead of thymine	Ribonucleic Acid
	-class of RNA that is a structural component of ribosomes -synthesized in the nucleolus	rRNA (Ribosomal RNA)
	-a replicated molecule of DNA contains one strand from the original DNA molecule (used as the template) and a newly synthesized DNA strand	Semiconservative Replication
	-the transfer of information from an RNA molecule to a polypeptide -the three stages of polypeptide synthesis (initiation, elongation, and termination) require energy and are mediated by various enzymes -mRNA is read in the 5' to 3' direction	Translation
	-class of RNA bearing an anticodon (complementary to the codon) and the amino acid for the corresponding codon -vital in translation, as it brings the amino acids to the ribosome and ensures that each codon matches up with the proper amino acid	tRNA (Transfer RNA)
	-similar structures that share a common function but not similar origins	Analogous Structures
	-type of natural selection where one extreme phenotype is favored over the normal phenotype and other extreme phenotypes	Directional Selection
	-type of natural selection where both phenotypic extremes are favored over the normal phenotype	Disruptive Selection
	-similar structures that share a common origin	Homologous Structures
	-type of natural selection where the normal phenotype is favored while those outside the norm are eliminated	Stabilizing Selection

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