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134 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Meiosis
a division of the genetic material in the nucleus to produce daughter cells with one-half the amount of hereditary material found in the parent cell
gametes
it is the basis of sexual reproduction and genetic inheritance
Mitosis
division of the genetic material in the nucleus that produces daughter cells genetically identical to the parent cell.
somatic cells
body cells
M phase
dividing phase
interphase
nondividing phase
cell cycle
the orderly sequency of events that occurs starting form the formation of wukaryotic cell through the duplication of its chromosome to the time it undergoes cell division
2 key events of the cell cycle
1. replication
2. partitioning of the copied chromosomes
chromatid
each of the two DNA strands in a replicated chromosome
sister chromatids
attached at the centromere
centromete
exact copies of the same genetic information
mitotic spindle
microtubule--organizing center
prophase
the chromosome replicates and condenses and becomes visible in the light microscope
prometaphase
the nucleat envelope breaks down and spindle fibers from each mitotic spindle attach to one of the two sister chromatids of each chromosome at the kinetochore
kinetochores
located at the centromere region of the chromosome
metaphase
chromosome line up along the imaginary plane called the metaphase plate
anaphase
centromeres split and sister chromatids are pulled toward opposite poles
telophase
a new nuclear envelope begins to form around each set of chromosomes
cytokinesis
the division of the cytoplasm to form two daughter cells
cleavage furrow
a ring of actin and myosin filaments contracts inside of the cell mebrane causing it to pinch inward
Mitosis promoting factor MPF
induces mitosis in all eukaryotes
protein kinase
catalyzes phosophorylation of a target protein by ATP and a cyclin
cell-cycle chechpoint
critical point in the cell cycle is regulated
Sex chromosomes
determine the sex of individual
autosomes
all other chromosomes
homologous chromosomes or homologs
chromosomes of the same tyoe with the same genes in the same locations
gene
a section of DNA that indluence one of more hereditary traits in an individual
alleles
different versions of a specific gene
karyotype
the number and types of chromosomes present in an organism
haploid number
the nubmer of distinct types of chromosomes present
ploidy
the number of each type of chromosome present
crossing over
genetic recombination occuring in late prophase 1 of sister chromatin
genetic diversity
random seperation of homologous chromosomes in anaphase 1
genetic recombination
greatly increases the genetic variability of gametes producted by meiosis beyone that produced by random addortment of choromosomes
outcrossing
gametes from different individuals combine to form offspring
fertilization
when an egg and sperm come together to form a new individual
nondisjunction
the failure of homologous chromosomes to seperate
model organism
it is easy to grow, has a short reproductive cycle, and produces large numver of seeds
phenotypes
physical traits
pure lines
produce identical offspring when self-pollinated
hybrids
mating 2 different pure lines that differ in one or more traits
reciprocal cross
a set of matinds inwhich the mother's phenotype in the first cross is the father's phenotype in the second cross, and the father's phenotype in the first cross is the mother's phenotype in the second cross were identical
recessive
takes 2 alleles for the gene to show
dominant
only takes 1 allele for the gene to show
genotype
alleles in an individual
principle of segregation
allels aegrate into different gemetes during egg and sperm formation than come back together when an egg is fertilized by a sperm to form o zygotes
homozygous
indviduals with two copies of the same alleles
heterozygous
individuals with different copies
monohybrid cross
mating between parent that are both hereozygous for a trait
punnett square
used to predict the genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring from a cross
genetic model
a set of hypotheses that explains how a particulat trait is inherited
principle of independent assortment
alleles of different genes are transmitted independently of each other
sex-linked inheritance
the various inheritance patterns that can occur when genes are carried on the sex chromosomes, such that female and males have different numbers of allels of that gene
linkage
the physical association of genes on the same chromosome
recombination
when the combination of alleles on the X chromsome of progeny is differnet from the combinations of alleles present in the parent generation
genetic map
a diagram that shows the relatice locations of specific genes on a certain chromosomes
multiple allelism
genes that have more than two alleles
polymorphic
different combinations of alleles produce more that two ditince phenotypes
incomplete dominace
the heterozygotes have an intermediate phenotype
codominance
a heretozygous organism that displays the phenotype of both alleles of a single gene
pleotropic
a gene that influences many traits rather than just one
epistasis
one gene affects the action of another gene
discrete traits
characteristic that are qualitatively different
polygenic inheritance
which each gene addes a small amount to the value of the phenotype
pedigrees
family tree that are used to analyze the human crosses that already exist
carriers
the indiviuals with the trait must be homozygous and the parents are heterozygous carriers
double helix
antiparallel strands twisted together
complementary base pairing
the double helis is stabilized the hydrogen bonds
semiconservative replication
each old DNA strand is copied to generate a new strand. each new chromosome is composed of one strand of old DNA and one strand of newly synthesized DNA
conservative replication
the original chromosome is copied but remains unchanged. one chromsome is composed of old strands and the other of new strands
dispersice replication
the replication process generares two new chromosmes with new and old sections of DNA mixed together randomly
DNA polymerase
add deoxyribonucleotides only to the 3' end of a growing DNA cain, so DNA synthesis always processds in the 5'------>3' direction
deoxynucloside triphosohates (dNTPs)
the monomers for DNA polymerization
origin of replication
the replication process begins
replication bubble
grows in both directions becuase DNA synthesis is bidirectional
replication fork
different suite of proteins initiates replication
DNA helicase
the brakafe of hydrogen bonds between the two DNA strands to seperate them
Single-strand DNA-binding proteins (SSBPs)
attach to the separated strands to prevent them from closing
Topoisomerase
cuts and rejoins the DNA downstream of the replication fork, relieving this tension
primase
a type of RNA polymerase that synthesizes a short RNA segment that serves as primer for DNA synthesis and supplis that free 3'-hydroxyl group for addition of the first nucleotide
leadign strand
the DNA is synthesized continuously
lagging strand
synthesize in the opposite direction of the replicaiton fork and lags behind the fork
Okazaki fragments
the lagging strand is synthesized as short discontinuous fragments
DNA ligase
joins the Okazaki fragments to form a continuous DNA strands
Telomeres
the regions at the ends of linear chromsomes
telomerase
adds more six-base repeats to the end of the leading strand
exonuclease
remoces deoxyribonucleotides from DNA
Mismatch repair
mismatched bases remain after DNA synthesis is complete
nucleotide excision repair system
recgnizes thymine dimers and other types of damaged bases that produce an irregularity in the DNA
one-gene, one-enzyme hypothesis
gnes contain the information needed to make proteins, many of which function as enzymes
genetic screen
a techinique for picking a certian types of mutants our of many thousands of randomly generated mutants
RNA polymerase
catalyzes the synthesis of RNA according to the information provided by DNA
central dogma
DNA--> RNA-->Proteins
DNA is ____to RNA
transcribed
mRNA is ___to protein
translated
genetic code
the rules that specify the relationship between a sequence of nucleotides in DNA or RNA and the sequence of amino acids in a protein
triplet code
reduntant, with some amino acids being specified by more than one codon
reading frame
a gene could be destroyed by mutation by then resotred if the total number of deletions or additions were multiples of three
start codon
signifies the start of the protein encoding sequence in mRNA
stop codons
the genetic code that signal the end of the protein coding sequence
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
in vitro DNA synthesis reaction in which a specific section of DNA is replicated over and over to amplify the number of copies of that sequence
transcription
the first step in converting genetic information into proteins
holoenzyme
made up of the core enzymw which has the ability to synthesize RNA and the sigma subunit, which is required for initiation of transcription
elongation phase
RNA polymerase moves along the DNA template in the 3'->5' direction and synthesizes RNA in the 5'->3' direction
transcription termination signal
casues the RNA to form a hairpin structure
exons
the regions of eukaryotic genes that will be part of the final mRNA
primary transcript
containts exons and introns
splicing
the process that removes introns
small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs) and spliceosomes
they catalyze the splicing reaction
aminoacyl rRNA
a tRNA covalently linked to its corresponding amino acid
aminoacyl tRNA synthestases
catalyze the addition of amino acids to tRNA
wobble hypothesis
proposes that the third of the tRNA anticodon can form a nonstandard base pair with the codon
point mutation
a single base change
missense mutation
a point mutation that causes a change in the amino acids sequence of the protein
silent mutations
mutations that do not chande the amino acid sequence of the protein
inducer
a molecule that stimulated the expression of a specific gene
negative control
when a regulatory protein binds to DNA and shuts down transcription
positive control
regulatory protein binds to DNA and triggers transctiption
reressor
exerts negative control over the lac Z and lac Y genes
operon
a set of coordinately regulated bacterial gene that are transcribed together into one mRNA
motif
a domain that is observed in many different proteins
helix-turn-helix motif
a common stuructural design in the lac repressor
recognition sequence
the section of the helix-turn-helix motif that binds inside the mjor groove
chromatin
DNA is wrapped around proteins to create a protein-DNA complex
chromatin remodeling
the DNA neat the promoter must be released from tight interactions with protein before transcription
nucleosomes
repeating beadlike structures
hisone
nucleosomes consist of negatively charged DNA wrapped twice around eight positively charged proteins
chromatrin-remodeling complexes
reshape chromatin
enhancers
unique regulatory sequences that can influence gene expression from a long distance
silencers
varied lcoations and distances from the regulated gene, but tey repress tather than activated gene expression
coactivators
additional proteins involved in intitating transcription
alternative splicing
different exons are spliced together to produce different mature mRNAs leads to production of different proteins
tumor suppessor genes
slow or stop the cell cycle
oncogenes
promote cancer development