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65 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are the myths of Communication? |
Communication Myths
1. Communication cures-all; relationships cannot be fixed, it can tell you how apart you are, good interviews don't mean better jobs. 2. Communicating is just common sense; people believe communications is common sense and the Hindsight bias-the tendency to look back after a fact or outcome has been revealed and say to yourself, " I knew that all along." 3. Communication quantity equals quality; more communications isn't always better communication. You can talk all day but only have on good thing to say. |
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Linear Model
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one-way communication. Involves sender, message, channel, receiver, and noise
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Interactive Model
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added feedback, which makes two-way communication. Includes field of experience (cultural background).
Feedback- the receiver;s verbal and nonverbal responses to a message. Field of Experience- includes cultural background, ethnicity, geographic location, extend of travel, and general personal experiences. |
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Transactional Model
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assumes people are connected through communication. Not two-way communication, but all-way communication. Uses content and relationship dimension. Viewing this model provides two insights:
1. Each of us is a sender-receiver, not merely a sender of a receiver. 2. Recognizes communication affects all parties involved. |
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Components of communication models?
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Sender-initiator and encoder (sends..)
Message-stimulus that produces meaning (through...) Channel-medium which travels (written/oral) (to...) Receiver-decoder of a message Noise- interference with effective transmission and reception of message. |
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What are the 2 aspects of every message?
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Content Dimension is what is actually said and done.
Relationship Dimension is how a message defines or redefines the association between individuals. |
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Communicating competent model!
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To engage in communication with others that is perceived to be both EFFECTIVE and APPROPRIATE in a given context. We can enhance our communication competence by building knowledge, develop our communication skills, enhance our commitment, and apply ethics to our communication choices
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How can you enhance your communication competence?
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KNOWLEDGE-knowing the rules (favorable prescription that indicates what behavior is obligated, preferred, or prohibited in certain context) that create behavioral expectations and knowing what is likely to work effectively given rules of the situation. Failure to know the basic rules can produce embarrassing moments.
SKILL- the successful performance of communication behavior and the ability to repeat such a behavior. examples: clearly, fluently, eloquently, and confidently delivery of message. Having a variety of skills give you flexibility to make choices appropriate to specific context. SENSITIVITY-receptive accuracy whereby we can detect, decode, and comprehend signals in our social enviornment. Helps us adapt to a particular context. It can be learned. >Major aspect: Be mindful (we think about our communication and continually work at changing what we do in order to become effectively) NOT mindless (we're not cognizant of our communication with others and we put little or no effort at improving) COMMITMENT-a passion for excellence. Accepting nothing but the best . Attitude is as important as Aptitude. ETHICS- a set of standards for judging the moral correctness of communication behavior. > 1. Respect, 2. Honesty, 3. Fairness, 4. Choice, 5. Responsibilty |
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Constructive communications climate
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Constructive communication climate is composed of two general elements: a pattern of OPENESS, or a willingness to communicate, and a pattern of SUPPPORTIVENESS or a confirmation of the worth and value of others and a willingness to help others be successful
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Destructive communications climate
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Destructive communication climate is composed of two general elements: a pattern of CLOSEDNESS, or a unwillingness to communicate with others, and a pattern of DEFENSIVENESS, or a protective reaction to a perceived attack on our self-esteem and self-concept
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Define the perception process.
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is the interaction of selecting, organizing, and interpreting data from our senses. Its an active process. Begins with SELECTING- selecting is determining by sensory limitation and selective attention.
>we sense stimuli through our 5 sense; vision, hearing, touch, smell, & taste. >then we SELECTIVE ATTENTION (1) focus on specific stimuli and (2) screen out other data ...then we ORGANIZE- we organize stimuli to create meaning through SCHEMAS. ...then we INTERPRET- making sense out of stimuli we organized. >make sense of our own behavior and our transactions with others. >ATTRIBUTIONS-assigning causes to behaviors. (through (1) personal characteristics or (2) the environment/situation >accuracy is difficult b/c lack of info. > Influences are social desirability, consistency/distinctiveness of info.,and perceptions are one-way. |
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What is a perceptual schema?
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ORGANIZE- we organize stimuli to create meaning through SCHEMAS-mental frame work that create meaningful pattern.
>SCHEMAS PROTOTYPES-the most representative or "best" exampe of something...ex. "best friend" STEREOTYPE-generalization about a group of people or categories of people...ex. ethnicity, gender, orientation , bodytype. (can be good/bad, right/wrong) SCRIPTS-a predictable sequence of events that indicated what we are expected to do in a given situation...ex..."hello, how are you? ...good..u?" |
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How is self-concept developed?
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Self-Concept is a sense of who you are and what makes you a person distinct from other persons; the sum total of everything that encompasses the self-referential term “me.”
>the descriptive element of self-perception (self –esteem). >3 elements to Self-esteem >Reflected appraisal: a term coined by Harry Stack Sullivan (1953), refers to messages you receive from others that assess your self-concept. >Parents have powerfull effect on self-esteem. >Comparing your self with one another. (social comparison) >Contingency of self-worth (what's most important to you that is perceived) |
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What are some of the influences on perception?
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10. Some influences on perception include gender, culture, past experiences, mood, and context. We are either naturally inclined to view situations and the world from our gender or from the way we were raised. Childhood traumas and experiences throughout our life reflect in our we perceive it.
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What is self-disclosure?
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Self-disclosure is the process of purposely revealing to others personal information about yourself that is significant and that others would not know unless you told them. It is PURPOSEFUL, not accidental, communication.
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Define the concepts of depth and breadth in the terms of self-disclosure?
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DEPTH refers to how personal you become when discussing a particular subject.
BREADTH refers to the range of subjects discussed |
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What are the guidelines of offering and receiving self-disclosure?
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There needs to be trust, reciprocity (2-way), culturally appropriate, situational appropriate, and incremental disclosure.
Must establish 5 goals ...Deveop relationship, gain self-knowledge, correcting misperception, eliciting reassurance, and creating impressions. BAD SELF_DISCLOSURE purpose is to manipulate and catharsis (getting it off your chest) |
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Why is reciprocal sharing important?
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Reciprocal sharing is important because it demonstrates that trust and risk-taking are shared.
If one person discloses but the other does not, you should be wary of further disclosures until reasons for the one-way self-disclosure become apparent. |
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Define "self-serving bias"..
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The self-serving bias is the tendency to attribute our successful behavior to ourselves (personal traits) but to assign external circumstances (situations) to our unsuccessful behavior. This is how we protect our self-concept and our self-esteem. Athletes for example blame the losses on the referee or the weather yet when they win they attribute their victories to personal prowess.
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What is the "Self-fulfilling prophecy"?
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This is closely related to stereotype vulnerability when there is acting on an erroneous expectation that produces the expected behavior and confirms the original impression. Expect individuals to be unfriendly, act according to that expectation by not smiling, backing away and seeming to desire conversing with anyone else, and making little effort to engage in conversation, and watch them fulfill the prophecy by becoming unfriendly even though that may not have been their inclination. Those individuals who expect to be rejected by others behave in ways that fulfill the prophecy; they ultimately get rejected. This prophecy makes inaccurate stereotypes appear valid. Those individuals who most expect to be negatively stereotypes tend to avoid opportunities that could counter prejudicial stereotypes. (Women behaving more critically towards men, who they expect to be sexist.)
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Define the process of Attribution...
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Attribution is assigning causes to behavior. We attribute two primary causes to behavior. The first one is the personal characteristics, or traits of the individual (dispositional causes) and the second is the environment (situational causes). We make sense of our own behavior and our transactions with others by making attributions. This is a highly subjective process. Some individuals assign personal reasons for their failures “I’m not smart enough” and other attribute situational causes “There wasn’t enough time to do my best on the exam.” Accurately attributing causes to the behavior of others is particularly difficult because we usually do not have enough information to make valid conclusions.
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How does the fundamental attribution error impact competent communication?
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The fundamental attribution error is overemphasizing personal traits and underemphasizing situations as causes of other people’s behavior. Even when we know a person is required to communicate in a certain way, we still tend to perceive personal characteristics as the cause of behavior rather than situational forces. A study showed that when students were told that a speaker was told to be unfriendly and when he spoke to them he was either friendly or unfriendly they still professed that he was unfriendly just because they were told that he was told to act unfriendly.
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What is empathy?
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Empathy is how open we are to understanding someone else’s position, and being able to understand their point of view.
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Define culture?
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Culture is a learned set of enduring values, beliefs, and practices that are shared by an identifiable, large group of people with a common history.
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How does culture influence communication?
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Miscommunication becomes very prevalent when a culture divide enters into communication. Varying values and beliefs are the cause of much intercultural miscommunication. Culture can also enrich communication by opening up unprecedented opportunities for discussion
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Define ethnocentrism
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Ethnocentrism is the belief that a person has that his or her own culture trumps all other cultures.
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Define cultural relativism
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Cultural relativism is the viewpoint that there is no “right or wrong” but only “different.” This is an attempt at soothing bad effects of ethnocentrism.
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Define multiculturalism
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Multiculturalism is the belief that all cultures are and should be treated as equal in order to preserve diversity of society
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Explain the differences between individualistic and collectivist cultures?
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INDIVIDUALISTIC cultures are centered about the advancement of the individual. People are connected loosely and identification with a specific group is rare. One negative byproduct of individualistic culture is the fact that disadvantaged individuals are often left behind and forgotten as those around them struggle to help themselves only.
COLLECTIVIST culture is all about the team. People are committed to their “groups” (such as family or organizations). One negative byproduct of a collectivist culture is the fact that the uniqueness of an individual is often under emphasized because family or group advancement is so important. |
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Explain the difference between low-power distance and high-power distance cultures?
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Low-power distance cultures (also known as horizontal cultures) seek to keep everybody at the same societal level. Nobody is better than anybody else. Some “power disparities” remain, though, as an essential function of modern society.
(very verbal, precise, direct, and explicit, self-expression and speaking ability are highly valued. ex. US In high power-distance cultures (also known as vertical cultures), there is much more of an emphasis on societal ranking and power. The authority of an individual is hardly ever disputed. (indirect verbal expression, lots of reading between the lines, significate info derived from contextual clues, vague messages to avoid offensive messages. |
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Explain the major differences between feminine and masculine culture.
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Members of masculine cultures tend to be unusually ambitious and assertive. Here, gender roles are traditional.
Members of feminine cultures tend to have affectionate and sensitive dispositions and emotional expressiveness. In feminine cultures, gender roles are more lax than masculine cultures |
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How does culture influence nonverbal communication?
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Aspects of culture such as values and beliefs can greatly influence nonverbal communication. These cause assumptions to be drawn about another person that are rarely actually true.
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Explain the nature language?
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Nature of language: language is structured by grammar which is the set of rules that specify how the units of language can be combined. Grammar is divided into:
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Explain the nature of phonemes?
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Phonemes- the individual units of sound that compose a specific spoken language. Those sounds correspond to consonants such as (b,c,d), vowels (a,e,i,o,u), and consenont combinations (ch, th)
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Explain the nature of morphemes?
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Phonemes- the smallest unit of meaning in the language. (combined phonemes)
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Explain the nature syntax?
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Syntax- are rules that govern combining words into phrases, and phrases into sentences.
(article+adjective+noun+verb+subject) |
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Explain the nature of semantics?
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Semantics- is the set of rules that governs the meaning of words and sentences. (The meaning of word is determined by the order in which they are places.)
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What are the four essential elements of all language?
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STRUCTURE- Structure is the most essential element of any language, every language has grammar that provides structure. Without structure you have no language.
(phonemes, morpheme, syntax, semantics) PRODUCTIVITY- is the capacity of language to transform a small number of phonemes into words, phrases, and sentences that you require to communicate abundance of thoughts and feelings. DISPLACEMENT- is the ability to use language to talk about objects, ideas, events, and relations that don’t exist in the physical here and now. SELF-REFLEXIVENESS – is the ability to use language to talk about language. |
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Explain the abstracting process?
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Sense Experience- Perception that comes from your senses. Any sights, sounds, tastes, smells, and feelings.
Description- is the verbal report of what we sense ( Inference- the conclusion about the unknown based on the known, they are guesses educated or otherwise. Judgment- subjective evaluations of objects events or ideas. We attach a subjective positive or negative, good or bad, right or wrong. |
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What are the 2 versions of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?
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1. First version of Sapir- Whorf hypothesis claims that we are prisoners of our native language, unable to think certain thoughts or perceive in certain ways because of the grammatical structure and lexicon of our language.
2. Second version of Sapir- Whorf hypothesis claims that the grammar and lexicon of our native language powerfully influences but does not imprison our thinking and perception. |
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Explain how connotative meaning differs form denotative meaning.
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Connotative meaning- is a personal meaning. It is volatile, individual, subjective meaning of a word.
While denotative meaning is shared meaning. It is found in a dictionary. |
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What is the difference between a fact and an inference?
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INFRENCE is a conclusion about the unknown based on the known.
FACT is a truth known by actual experience or observation, known to be true. |
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What are jargon and euphemisms?
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Jargon- specialized language for professionals, trade, or a group. Effective, convenient, and useful for user.
Euphemism- substitutes words that hurt, cause offense, or create problems for “kinder, gentler” words. ex. how nice...WTF |
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What are the differences between verbal and nonverbal channels of communication?
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One big difference between verbal and nonverbal communication is that verbal communication is only one channel while nonverbal has multiple channels. A second difference is that verbal communication has obvious beginnings and endings while nonverbal communication can continue even without the communicator realizing it or wanting it to.
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What are the functions of nonverbal communication?
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Repetition in nonverbal communication is adding a nonverbal cue to a verbal statement. For example, you may nod when you say “yes.” Repetition reduces confusion of meaning. Accentuation adds emphasis to a verbal statement. For example, banging your fist on the table when speaking angrily, demonstrates the emotions in the message.
Substitution is entirely replacing verbal communication with nonverbal communication. An example is shaking your head instead of saying “no.” Regulation is the guiding factor in conversation. For example, eye contact with the person who is supposed to speak next is regulation. Contradiction is when nonverbal communication contradicts what is being said verbally. For example, looking at your shoes and mumbling when telling somebody you love them will probably confuse the receiver or negate the message |
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Explain the major types of nonverbal communication?
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KINESTICS-is known as the study of body movement (facial expressions to gestures) in nonverbal communication. Specifically, manipulators are motions made by just one body part. Illustrators are motions that assist in giving meaning to a statement (arms open wide to welcome audience). Emblems are motions whose meanings are exact.
HAPTICS-is the study of physical touch. Specific types of touch include functional-professional touch (ie-nurses helping patients), social-polite touch (handshake at introductions), friendship-warmth touch (easily misunderstood-especially by members of the opposite sex), love and intimacy touch (holding hands), sexual touch (self-explanatory). Paralanguage-is vocal cues. An example is the depth of one’s voice giving away his or her age or sex. Territoriality-is a “predisposition to defend a fixed geographic area, or territory, as one’s exclusive domain.” An example is leaving a coat on a chair to tell people that you are sitting there. PROXEMICS-is the use of personal space. An example is setting up an office to one’s liking in order to create an efficient working environment (. |
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Define listening by its basic elements.
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Listening is the process of receiving, constructing , and reconstructing meaning from, and responding to spoken and nonverbal messages.
>comprehension- shared meaning between or among parties in transactions >retaining-memory is essential to listening process; retain important info you can't fit everything. >responding- listening is a transactional process between speaker and audience; effective listening depends on both participants. |
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What are the types of listening?
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INFORMATIONAL- attempts to comprehend the message of the speaker. *goal: understand what the speaker said.
CRITICAL-process of evaluating the merits of CLAIMS (generalized idea that remains to be proven) as they are heared. Involves skepticism-evaluating the claims. EMAPTHIC- requires us to take the perspective of other people, to listen for what that person wants/needs. |
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What are the most common problems that thwart competent INFORMATIONAL listening?
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problemos
>Conversational narcissim- the tendency of listener to turn ordinary conversations to themselves with out showing sustain interest in others topics. ex. "I've talked a lot @ ME, now, how @ u?" >Competative interrupting- when we dominate the convo by seizing the floor from others who are speaking. "can cause controversy" >Glazing-over- Listeners attention wanders and daydreaming occurs. >Pseudolistening- pretend listening (listening requires focused attention) >Ambushing- we listen for weaknesses and ignore strength or speakers message. ex. "gossip" 3D |
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What are the most common listener response styles used in empathic listening?
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Evaluative response- it makes a judgment about persons conduct. (p.176)
Advising response- tells people how they should act. (p. 177) Interpreting response- we express what we think is the underlying meaning of a situation presented to us. (p. 177) |
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Define power.
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Power is the ability to influence the attainment of goals sought by you or others.
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Explain the difference between assertiveness and aggressiveness.
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Assertiveness is the ability to communicate the full range of thoughts and emotions with confidence and skill.
Aggression is any physical or verbal communication that is intended to inflict harm. >Direct: hostile communication that targets the victim openly (ex. Pushing or shoving) >Indirect: hostile communication that intends to harm without being an aggressor (ex. Gossiping) |
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What are the major power resources?
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Power resources are anything that enables individuals to achieve their goals, assists others to achieve their goals, or interferes with the goal attainment of others.
There are several different kinds of power resources: >Expertise: expert on skill or knowledge >Legitimate authority: someone who is perceived to have a right to direct others’ behavior because of his or her position, title, role, experience, or knowledge. >Reward: something given or received in return or recompense for service, merit, hardship, etc. >Punishment: a penalty inflicted for an offense. >Personal qualities: includes personality, tone of voice, appearance, and other fair and unfair benefits of the speaker. |
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Define conflict.
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Conflict (247) happens when two parties realize they have a difference or differences in whatever goals they are trying to attain. Conflict is created when the two interests collide.
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Differentiate between destructive and constructive conflict?
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Conflict is inevitable, but the way we communicate decides whether conflict is destructive or constructive. Destructive conflict occurs when escalation, retaliation, domination, competition, defensiveness, and inflexibility are all present. Constructive conflict occurs when the communicators are cooperative, supportive, and flexible.
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Define the five most common conflict negotiation strategies?
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ACCOMIDATION as a means of negotiating conflict is the yielding of one will (usually the less powerful one) to the will of another (usually the more powerful one). An example of this is when an employee accommodates the desire of his employer to tuck in his shirt and arrive on time to work.
When somebody AVOIDS conflict, he or she acts as though there is no problem. COMPROMISING in conflict management creates a lose-lose situation. Both parties must give up something in order to get something else they want. COLLABORATION-is the most desirable form of conflict management. It’s a win-win situation for all parties involved. |
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Define what a small group is.
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three or more individuals, interacting for the achievement of some common purpose(s), who influences one another.
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What are the advantages and disadvantages of a small group?
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Two advantages of a small group are that they are relatively more efficient than large groups and there are fewer sub-groups dividing the whole. A disadvantage of a small group is that it might be too small to get much work done and make a difference.
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What is cohesion? How is it developed?
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When a group is cohesive, the members function well together. Cohesion grows as a group’s productivity and performance improve
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What influence does cohesion have on task and social dimensions of small group?
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With better cohesion comes a better task dimension and a better social dimension. If a group wants to spend time together, they’ll get more work done (usually) and they’ll get along well .
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What are group norms?
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Group norms determine how a group should behave. These include obligations, preferences, and prohibitions
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What is a small group role?
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A small group role is the behavior expected from the members of a small group depending on the members’ responsibilities. Small group roles can be both formal and informal.
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What is the difference between formal and informal rules?
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Formal roles are assigned. Examples of formal roles include president and treasurer. Informal roles are functions, not positions. Types of informal roles are task, maintenance, and disruptive.
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Explain the difference between the 3 types of informal group roles.
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Task roles- advance the attainment of group goals. *job is to extract the optimum productivity from the group.
Maintenance roles- address the social dimension of small groups. *job is to gain and maintain group cohesiveness. Disruptive roles- are "ME"-oriented. they serve individual needs at the expense of the group...often viewed at "the difficult group member" *to focus attention on the individual. |
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What is leadership?
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Leadership is a position of influence. The leader influences his or her followers while also being influenced by his or her followers. Leadership does not occur without a solid foundation of effective communication.
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