Fundamentals Of Anatomy & Phsiology

Front 1

Ancestors

Back 1

أسلاف / أجداد

Front 2

Invoking

Back 2

تضرع لله

Front 3

Evolve

Back 3

تطور

Front 4

Manipulate

Back 4

يعالج

Front 5

Adopted

Back 5

قرر/اقترح

Front 6

Topography

Back 6

وصف تفصيلي سطحي

Front 7

Scheme

Back 7

نموذج /نمط

Front 8

Quadrant

Back 8

ربع

Front 9

Optimal ،

Back 9

مثلى

Front 10

Perpetuation

Back 10

استمرارية

Front 11

Clinging

Back 11

التعلق

Front 12

Distinctive

Back 12

مميز

Front 13

Fossilized

Back 13

مستحاثة

Front 14

Hence

Back 14

لذلك

Front 15

Dispose/disposed

Back 15

يصرف/على أهبة الاستعداد

Front 16

Fertilizer

Back 16

مخصب/صناعة الأسمدة

Front 17

Lobster

Back 17

سرطان البحر

Front 18

Co2

Back 18

is produced as a waste product of cellular respiration and be eliminated quickly from the body through expiration via the respiratory system and the cardiovascular system.

Hint 18

If carbon dioxide is allowed to accumulate within cells, it becomes toxic by forming carbonic acid as it reacts with water. Hence, we exhale it quickly from the lungs.

Front 19

Ammonia (NH3)

Back 19

comes from the decomposition of proteins via the digestive process and the conversion of amino acids in cellular respiration to ATP molecules.

Hint 19

Because even a small amount of ammonia is injurious to cells, the human body must quickly dispose of this material. Through enzymes, the liver converts the toxic ammonia to a harmless substance called urea. Because urea is soluble in water, the blood then carries the urea to the kidneys to be filtered and eliminated from the body as urine.

Front 20

Sucrose (common table sugar)

Back 20

Disaccharide (glu+fru)

Front 21

Lipids

Back 21

Fats, phospholipids, steroids, and prostaglandins are examples of these different kinds of molecules.

Hint 21

We will concentrate on fats, which are a major kind of lipid.

Of the fats in the human body, 95% are triglycerides, now called ­triacylglycerols

Front 22

A fatty acid is saturated if it contains :

Back 22

only single covalent bonds such as those found in whole milk, butter, eggs , beef, pork, and coconut and palm oils. Too much of these fatty acids contributes to cardiovascular disease. Saturated fats tend to be solids at room temperature.

Front 23

Unsaturated fatty acid.

Back 23

However, if the carbon chain has one or more double covalent bonds between the carbon atoms, it is an unsaturated fatty acid. These fatty acids are good for you and are found in sunflower, corn, and fish oils. Unsaturated fats tend to be liquids at room temperature.

Front 24

Pork

Back 24

لحم الخنزير

Front 25

Arctic

Back 25

القطب الشمالي

Front 26

Antarctic

Back 26

القطب الجنوبي

Front 27

Seal

Back 27

فقمة

Front 28

Hump

Back 28

سنام

Front 29

Jolts

Back 29

صدمات/هزات

Front 30

Fats functions

Back 30

Fat found under the skin acts as an insulator to prevent heat loss.

Any animal that lives in the Arctic or Antarctic region (polar bears, seals, whales, or penguins) has a thick layer of insulatory fat. The camel’s hump is a thick deposit of fat to protect its internal organs from excessive rises in temperature in the hot desert. Fat also protects organs as a surrounding layer such as the layer around our kidneys to protect them from severe jolts.

Front 31

Catalysts

Back 31

محفزات

Front 32

Two very important nucleic acids are found in cells:

Back 32

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the genetic material of cells located in the nucleus of the cell. It determines all of the functions and characteristics of the cell.

Ribonucleic acid(RNA) is structurally related to DNA.

Two important types of RNA are messenger RNA and ­transfer RNA, which are important molecules necessary for ­protein synthesis .

Front 33

Nucleotide is:

Back 33

1_a complex combination of a sugar (deoxyribose in DNA and ribose in RNA)

2_ a nitrogen base

3_and a phosphate group

Front 34

Each amino acid has a carboxyl group ( 2 COOH), an amine group ( 2 NH 2 ), a hydrogen atom, and the R group. The R group refers to the different types of atoms and length of the chain.

Back 34

primary structure ,secondary structure ,tertiary structure, quaternary structure.

Front 35

Purines consist of a fused double ring of nine atoms. The two purine nitrogen bases are adenine and guanine.(Figure 2-11). The DNA molecule has Adeline , thymine, guanine, and cytosine. The RNA molecule substitutes uracil for thymine and also has adenine, cytosine, and guanine. In the DNA molecule, adenine joins thymine, whereas cytosine always joins guanine in forming the double helical chain.

Back 35

Pyrimidines consist of a single ring of six atoms. The three pyrimidine nitrogen bases are thymine, cytosine, and uracil

Hint 35

There are two categories of nitrogen bases, which consist of a complex ring structure of carbon and nitrogen atom

Front 36

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is:

triphosphate (ATP) is:

Back 36

The high-energy molecule or fuel that runs the cell’s machinery. All the food we eat (which is a form of chemical energy) must be transformed into another form of chemical energy (ATP) that allows our cells to maintain, repair, and reproduce themselves. The ATP molecule consists of a ribose sugar, the purine adenine, and three phosphate groups .The energy of the molecule is stored in the second and third phosphate groups.The breakdown of the glucose molecule and other nutrients provides the energy to make ATP molecules.

Hint 36

An ATP molecule is made by putting together an adenosine diphosphate (ADP) with a phosphate group (PO 4 ): ADP +PO 4+energy S↪ATP. The energy stored in the ATP molecule is then used to run the cell and to perform activities such as structural repair, reproduction, assimilation, and transport of materials across cell membranes.

This occurs when we break down an ATP molecule by releasing the energy in the phosphate bonds: ATP S↪ADP +PO 4 +energy (to do cell processes).

Front 37

Collisions

Back 37

اصطدامات

Front 38

Materials pass through the cell’s membrane in three different ways: diffusion, osmosis, and active transport.

↪Diffusion is the movement of molecules through a medium from an area of high

concentration of those molecules to an area of low concentration of those molecules.

↪Osmosis is a: special kind of diffusion.Osmosis pertains only to the movement of water molecules through a selectively permeable membrane (e.g., a plasma membrane) from an area of high concentration of water molecules (e.g., pure water) to an area of low concentration of water molecules (e.g., water to which a solute such as salt or sugar has been added.

↪ Cells obtain these nonosmotic or nondiffusable materials by a special mechanism called active transport. This mechanism, however, needs energy in the form of ATP to overcome the osmotic/diffusional barriers—another major reason that ATP is so important to a cell’s survival. Active transport is the transportation of materials against a concentration gradient or in opposition to other factors that would normally keep the material from entering the cell. Molecules move from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration (like a food vacuole).

Back 38

An example of an important diffusion in the human body is the uptake of oxygen by the blood in the lungs and the release of carbon dioxide gas to the lungs from the blood. Blood returning to the lungs is low in oxygen but high in carbon dioxide gas as a result of cellular respiration. When we breathe in air, we take in oxygen gas, so the lungs have lots of oxygen but little carbon dioxide gas.The oxygen moves from an area of high concentration (the lungs) to an area of low concentration (the blood ) by diffusion. Similarly, the carbon dioxide gas moves from an area of higher concentration (the blood) to an area of low concentration (the lungs) by diffusion. We exhale to get rid of the carbon dioxide gas now in the lungs.

Hint 38

Front 39

Distilled water

Back 39

ماء مقطر

Front 40

pH is defined as :

Back 40

The negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution: pH = -log [H+ ]

Hint 40

↪The dissociation of water produces H+and OH- in equal amounts.Therefore, a pH of 7

indicates neutrality on the pH scale.

↪ If a substance dissociates and forms an excess of H+ions when dissolved in water, it is referred to as an acid. All acidic solutions have pH values below 7. The stronger an acid is, the more H+ ions it produces and the lower its pH value. Because the pH scale is logarithmic, a pH change of 1 means a 10-fold change in the concentration of hydrogen ions. So lemon juice with a pH value of 2 is 100 times more acidic than tomato juice with a pH of 4.

↪A substance that combines with H+ ions when dissolved in water is called a base or alkali. By combining with H+ ions, a base therefore lowers the H+ ion concentration in that solution. Basic, also called alkaline, solutions have pH values above 7.

Front 41

Reservoir

Back 41

مستودع/مخزن

Front 42

↪ In our bodies, saliva in our mouths has a pH value slightly lower than 7 so it is just slightly acidic, whereas the stomach with its gastric juice and hydrochloric acid is very acidic with a pH value near 1.

↪Our blood on the other hand has a pH value of 7.4, making it just slightly basic.

↪Urine has a pH of 6, which, although acidic, is not as acidic as tomato juice with a pH of 4. The pH inside most cells and in the fluid surrounding cells is fairly close to 7.

Because enzymes are extremely sensitive to pH, even a small change can render them nonfunctional; thus, our bodies have buffers.

↪A buffer is a substance that acts as a reservoir for hydrogen ions, donating them to a solution when their concentration falls, and taking the hydrogen ions from a solution when their concentration rises.

Buffers are necessary because the chemical reactions in cells constantly are producing acids and bases. Buffers help maintain homeostasis within cells in regard to pHys levels. Most buffers consist of pairs of substances, one an acid and the other a base. For example, the key buffer in human blood is the acid-base pair bicarbonate (a base) and carbonic acid (an acid). Carbon dioxide and water combine chemically to form carbonic acid (H 2 CO 3 ). The carbonic acid then can dissociate in water, freeing H + ions and ­bicarbonate ions HCO 3-

The blood’s pH can be stabilized by the equilibrium between these forward and reverse reactions that interconvert the carbonic acid (H 2 CO 3 ) and the bicarbonate ion (HCO 3)(base).

Back 42

PH in our bodies

Front 43

Household

Back 43

منزل

Front 44

Bleach

Back 44

مسحوق تبيض الثياب

Front 45

↪The amount of water in the body is affected by the quantity of body fat.

↪Loss of Body water is a common cause of death in children who suffer from dehydration in developing countries.

Back 45

↪Lipids found in the from of triacylglycerol in adipose tissue,which constitutes the main energy store of the body .

↪These stores are found around abdominal viscera and in subcutaneous tissues.

↪In women ,fat distribution represents one of secondary sex characteristic.

↪It gives the female body it typical feminine configuration .

Front 46

Back 46

Front 47

(ECF) is a delivery system.

Back 47

It brings to the cells nutrients (e.g..glucose, fatty acids,amino acids),o2,various ions&trace minerals &variety of regulatory molecules (hormones )that coordinate the functions of widely separated cells.It removes co2,h2o,&toxic or detoxified materials.

Front 48

Back 48

Front 49

Back 49

✴Internal environment ✴:

is rich in ✳k+ & Mg+,& po4-3✳ is its major anion.

✴Extracellular fluid✴:

is characterized by high ✳Na+&Ca++ content &cl-✳ is the major anion.

خارج خلوي:Na,Ca,Cl,Hco3

داخل خلوي:Po4,proteins,k ,Mg