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339 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
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electrons bounce off specimen and form image on a fluorescent screen; 1000x more magnified than light microscope
SHOWS 3D DETAILS OF SURFACE |
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Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
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heavily STAINED parts of specimen absorb electrons, lightly stained parts allow e- to pass through
e- that pass through strike fluorescent screen & form image |
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Transect
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path along which one counts occurrences of the phenomenon of study
can estimate DENSITY OF OBJECTS |
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Lincoln-Peterson equation (capture + recapture)
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Estimates total population size:
N = [(n1)(n2)] / m n1 = 1st captures n2 = 2nd captures m = recaptures |
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Chromatography
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separates substances based on properties such as SIZE or CHARGE
large molecules will move slowly up paper |
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Spectrophotometry
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measures % of light absorbed and transmitted at different wavelengths by pigment solution
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Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
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piece of DNA is amplified into billions of copies through heating, cooling, and replication
PRIMER specifies segment to be copied, enzyme amplifies DNA |
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Theory
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formation of principles or relationships which have been VERIFIED & ACCEPTED
proven hypothesis can be changed at any time |
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Law
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explanation of events that OCCUR WITH UNIFORMITY under the same conditions
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Random errors
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statistical fluctuations (inconsistencies) in the measured data due to PRECISION LIMITATIONS of the measuring device
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Systematic errors
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reproducible inaccuracies that are CONSISTENTLY in the same direction
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Andreas Vesalius
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wrote books on ANATOMY that are the most accurate and comprehensive to date
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Anton van Leeuwenhoek
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FATHER of microscopy; saw and described bacteria & yeast (microorganisms) in water
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Robert Hooke
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compound microscope & illumination system
provided first description of cell |
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Carl Von Linnaeus
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binomial system of nomenclature
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Luis Pasteur
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discovered role of MICROORGANISMS IN CAUSE OF DISEASE, pasteurization, & rabies vaccine
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Robert Koch
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SPECIFIC diseases are caused by specific pathogens
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Mattias Schleiden & Theodore Schwann
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CELL THEORY
Schleiden theorized cells and cellular products constitute all structural elements of plants Schwann theorized same thing about animals a year later |
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Thomas Hunt Morgan
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role of chromosomes in heredity with fruit flies
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Watson & Crick
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DNA double helix
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Francois Jacob & Jacques Monod
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genetic control of enzyme and virus synthesis
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Well-designed & controlled experiment (4)
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1. Control/standard
2. Constants 3. Independent variables 4. Dependent variable |
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Adhesion
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ability of water to stick to other substances, i.e. xylem of stem which aids in uptravel of water
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Cohesion
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ability of water molecules to stick to each other by hydrogen bonds, e.g. SURFACE TENSION, CAPILLARITY
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Disaccharide bond
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glycosidic linkage (covalent)
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Starch
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major energy storage molecule in PLANTS
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Glycogen
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major energy storage molecule in ANIMALS
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Cellulose
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in plant cell walls
animals cannot digest = fiber |
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Chitin
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found in EXOSKELETON of arthropods & fungi
contains GLYCOPROTEIN |
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Steroids
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lipid insoluble in water
carbon skeleton with 4 interconnected rings |
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Cholesterol
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precursor form from which other steroids are synthesized from
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Steroid hormones (4)
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cortisone, testosterone, estrogen, progesterone
insolubility keeps them from dissolving in body fluids |
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Amino acid components
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amino group + acid group + radical group (defines a.a.)
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Primary structure
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unique sequence of AMINO ACIDS
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Secondary structure
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local folding of POLYPEPTIDE CHAIN, held together by HYDROGEN BONDS along polypeptide backbone
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Tertiary structure
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bonding between SIDE CHAINS of amino acids:
hydrogen bonds hydrophobic/Van der Waals interactions disulfide bridges (strong covalent bond) ionic bonds |
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Quaternary structure
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overall structure of PROTEIN from aggregation of 2 or more polypeptide chains
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Structure of nucleotide
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phosphate group + 5C sugar (deoxyribose, ribose) + nitrogenous base
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Pyrimidines
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one 6-membered ring
cytosine uracil (RNA) thymine (DNA) |
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Purines
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6-membered ring fused to 5-membered ring
guanine adenine |
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A = T = U bonds
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linked by 2 covalent bonds
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G = C bonds
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linked by 3 covalent bonds
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Induced fit theory
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enzyme can stretch and bend to fit substrate (most accepted theory)
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Optimal pH for enzyme reactions
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6-8
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Optimal temperature for enzyme reactions
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human body temperature (35-40°C)
enzyme activity increases with increasing temperature to a point (optimal temperature); after, rapidly drops due to disruption of bonds |
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Coenzyme
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ORGANIC cofactor, i.e. vitamins
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Site of glycolysis
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Cytoplasm
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First 5 steps of glycolysis
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2 ATP are USED to phosphorylate glucose to make 2 molecules of 3C sugar
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Step 3 of glycolysis
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enzyme phosphofructokinase turns off glycolysis when enough ATP is made
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Last 5 steps of glycolysis
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4 ATP are made by substrate-level phosphorylation
2 molecules of NAD+ reduced to NADH |
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Yield of glycolysis
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4 ATP (2 net)
2 NADH 2 pyruvate |
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Site & yield of transition
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if oxygen is present, 2 pyruvate enters MITOCHONDRIAL MATRIX
2 pyruvate modified to become: 2 ACETYL-COA 2 CO2 2 NADH |
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Site of Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)
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mitochondrial matrix
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Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)
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2C acetyl CoA + 4C oxaloacetate = 6C citric acid
2C lost as CO2 --> 4C + 2C acetyl CoA (cycle turns twice) 8 hydrogens released and picked up by NAD & FAD |
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Yield of Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)
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2 ATP (substrate-level phosphorylation)
2 FADH2 6 NADH 4 CO2 |
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Site of Electron Transport Chain
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inner membrane of mitochondria (cristae)
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Electron Transport Chain
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NADH transfers electrons from glycolysis & Kreb's Cycle to first molecule (proteins) in the chain - molecules alternate between reduced and oxidized states as they accept and donate electrons
Causes a drop in free energy, electrons pump H+ across the membrane to create a H+ gradient |
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Final electron acceptor of ETC
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oxygen (creates water)
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Chemiosmosis (oxidative-phosphorylation)
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energy stored in form of H+ gradient across membrane used to drive cellular work
ATP synthase builds ATP from ADP on inner membrane by energy from hydrogens of NADH & FADH2 (oxidized) |
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Yield of Electron Transport Chain
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34 ATP by oxidative-phosphorylation
(10 NADH + 2 FADH2) |
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Anaerobic respiration
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regeneration of NAD+ for glycolysis
final e- acceptor is an organic molecule |
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Alcoholic fermentation
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pyruvate converted to ethanol
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Lactic acid fermentation
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pyruvate is converted to lactate
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Relationship between wavelength and energy
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the lower the wavelength, the greater the amount of available energy
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Light reaction (purpose & site)
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convert solar energy to chemical energy (ATP + NADPH) in thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts
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Photosystem II
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P680, non-cyclic
Chlorophyll a absorbs light energy, excited e- passed to primary e- acceptor and down to an ETC Photolysis of water to replace e- in chlorophyll 2 O2 released |
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Photosystem I
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P700, cyclic
Chlorophyll b absorbs light energy, excited e- passed to an e- acceptor and is passed down another ETC to final acceptor: Fd NADPH + ATP produced |
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Calvin Cycle (purpose & site)
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dark reaction that uses previously made ATP to create C6H12O6 in stroma of chloroplasts
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ATP & NADPH in Calvin Cycle
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from light reaction, used as reducing power for reduction of CO2 to sugar because the process is endergonic (uphill)
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Rubisco
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"fixes" carbon from atmosphere in Calvin Cycle to form PGAL, which is then converted to glucose
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3 phases of Calvin Cycle
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1. Carbon fixation
2. Reduction 3. Regeneration of CO2 acceptor |
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C3 Plants
(leaf structure) (enzyme) (environment) (site of CO2 fixation & glucose production) |
bundle sheath cells lacking chloroplasts
catalyzed by Rubisco efficient at midrange temperatures - characteristic of most plants mesophyll cells fix CO2 and produce glucose |
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C4 Plants
(leaf structure) (enzyme) (environment) (site of CO2 fixation & glucose production) |
bundle sheath cells having chloroplasts
catalyzed by Pepco efficient in hot, dry environments mesophyll cells fix CO2 bundle sheath cells produce glucose |
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CAM Plants
(leaf structure) (enzyme) (environment) (site of CO2 fixation & glucose production) |
large vacuoles in mesophyll cells
catalyzed by Pepco arid & stressful conditions mesophyll fix CO2 only at night as stomata are closed during day to conserve water |
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Chemiosmosis
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Facilitated diffusion: requires a phospholipid bilayer, a proton pump, protons, and ATPase
Chemical energy transferred to proton pump, which creates proton gradient across membrane Gradient used to activate ATPase ATPase catalyzed formation of ATP |
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Photoautotrophs
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make food from light and CO2, releasing O2 that can be used for respiration
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Chemoautotrophs
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oxidize SULFUR & AMMONIA
done by some bacteria in Benthic zone of ocean |
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Active immunity
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develops after recovery from INFECTIOUS DISEASE or VACCINATION
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Passive immunity
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passed from one individual to another and is NOT PERMANENT, i.e. immunity passed from mother to nursing child
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Humoral response
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Activated by FREE ANTIGENS
B CELLS give rise to PLASMA CELLS that secrete ANTIBODIES and memory cells that recognize future exposures Antibodies bind to antigen and make them an easy target for phagocytes to destroy |
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Cell mediated response
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Infected cells activate CYTOTOXIC T CELLS, which bind to infected cell and destroys the entire cell with the antigen
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T helper cells
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release IL-2, which stimulates other lymphocytes (cytotoxic T cells & B cells)
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Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)
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responsible for rejection of tissue and organ transplants
cytotoxic T cells recognize MHC on transplant as foreign and destroys tissues |
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UVA
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longer wavelength, penetrates deep into skin and is main cause of wrinkles
least harmful, but can still cause aging, DNA damage, and skin cancer |
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UVB
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main cause of skin cancer
radiation excites and distorts DNA |
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Greenhouse Effect
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Atmosphere warms planet
Visible and near-visible radiation from sun easily get through, but thermal radiation from earth's surface can't easily get out Danger = elevated concentration of CO2 |
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Energy storage in ATP
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in covalent bonds between phosphates
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Gap junctions
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adjacent cells connect their cytoplasm, e.g. cardiac muscle
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Notch signaling mechanism
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adjacent cells make physical contact, e.g. cell differentiation during embryonic development
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Hormones (produced by & travel in)
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produced by endocrine cells & travel through blood to reach all parts of the body
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Neurotransmitters can target...
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only cells in the vicinity of the emitting cell
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Norepinephrine
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functions as hormone when released from adrenal gland
functions as neurotransmitter in brain when produced by neurons |
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Receptor ligands
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molecules that can ACTIVATE OR INHIBIT RECEPTOR PROTEINS that are often on cell surface
i.e. hormones, neurotransmitters, cytokines, growth factors |
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Cell theory (3)
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1. All living things are composed of cells
2. Cells are the basic units of structure and function of living things 3. All cells are produced from other cells |
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Lazzaro Spallanzani & Louis Pasteur
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living organisms derive from other living organisms, disproving theory of spontaneous generation
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Walter Flemming
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observed components of nucleus and nucleolus; observed chromosomes during cell division by staining
coined term MITOSIS |
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Prokaryotes
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Bacteria & cyanobacteria
No defined nucleus or nuclear membrane (DNA, RNA, ribosomes float freely) Nucleoid = single chromosome condensed in cytoplasm Thick cell wall of glycoproteins which surrounds cell membrane |
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Eukaryotes
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Protists, fungi, plants, & animals
Generally larger than prokaryotic cells Contain organelles Cytoskeleton Nucleus |
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Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
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site of lipid synthesis
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Rough endoplasmic reticulum
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aids in synthesis of proteins that are membrane bound or destined for secretion
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Mitochondria
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have their own DNA, RNA, & ribosomes
capable of reproducing by BINARY FISSION if more energy is needed 2 membranes: smooth outer membrane and folded inner membrane |
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Cristae
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folds in inner membrane of mitochondria, which provides a large surface area for respiration to occue
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Plastids
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found only in photosynthetic organisms--similar to structure of mitochondria
i.e. chloroplasts, chromoplasts, amyoplasts |
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Chromoplasts
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make and store yellow & orange pigments which provide color to LEAVES, FLOWERS, & FRUITS
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Amyoplasts
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store STARCH and are used as a food reserve
abundant in roots like potatoes |
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Cytoskeleton
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found in plant & animal cells
protein filaments attached to plasma membrane & organelles to provide framework for cell and aid in cell movement i.e. microtubules, intermediate filaments, microfilaments |
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Microtubules
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largest, make up CILIA & FLAGELLA + CENTRIOLES
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Microfilaments
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smallest, made of ACTIN & MYOSIN
function in cell movement & pinches 2 cells apart after cell division |
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Interphase
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(2n) cell grows and copies chromosomes in preparation for mitotic/meiotic phase
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G1 phase
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cell is growing and metabolizing
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S phase
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new DNA is being synthesized
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G2 phase
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new proteins and organelles are made to prepare for cell division
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Prophase
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chromatin condenses to become visible chromosomes
nucleolus disappears and nuclear membrane breaks apart mitotic spindles form cytoskeleton breaks down |
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Prometaphase
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(4n) NUCLEUS DISSOLVES AND MICROTUBULES ATTACH TO CENTROMERES
Kinetochore fibers attach to chromosomes at centromere |
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Metaphase
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(4n) chromosomes align at middle of cell
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Anaphase
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(4n) SEPARATED CHROMOSOMES PULL APART
centromeres split in half and homologous chromosomes separate |
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Telophase
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(4n) MICROTUBULES DISAPPEAR & CELL DIVISION BEGINS
2 nuclei form with a full set of DNA nucleoli become visible and nuclear membrane reassembles plant cells = cell plate animals cells = cleavage furrow |
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Cytokinesis
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(2n) 2 CELLS FORM
division of cytoplasm & organelles |
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Synapsis
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occurs during prophase I of meiosis
replicated chromosomes condense and pair with homologues, which forms a TETRAD in which CROSSING OVER occurs |
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Kingdom Monera
(s-m celled) (composition of cell wall) (domains) |
PROKARYOTIC, single-celled
circular chromosomes & ribosomes most possess cell wall of PEPTIDOGLYCAN some possess capsules & external mobility structures includes EUBACTERIA & ARCHAEBACTERIA |
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Kingdom Protista
(s-m celled) (classified into major groups by...) (plastids?) (mobile?) (composition of cell wall) |
eukaryotic, mainly single-celled
classified into major groups according to form & function many mitochondria for energy production photosynthetic organisms possess plastids external mobility structures cell walls with NO cellulose |
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Kingdom Fungi
(s-m celled) (composition of cell wall) (plastids?) (centrioles?) (motile?) |
eukaryotic, mainly multicellular
cell walls of CHITIN non-photosynthetic most possess centrioles non-motile release EXOENZYMES to dissolve food |
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Kingdom Plantae
(s-m celled) (shape of cells) (composition of cell wall) (centrioles?) |
eukaryotic, mainly multicellular, square-shaped cells
cell walls of mainly CELLULOSE NO centrioles |
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Kingdom Animalia
(s-m celled) (motile?) (centrioles?) |
eukaryotic, multicellular, motile
possess centrioles |
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Domain Eukarya
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all members of protist, fungi, plant, and animal kingdoms
membrane-bound nucleus + membranous organelles linear chromosomes with histones cell membranes of glycerol-ESTER lipids with sterols cell wall (if applicable) of polysaccharides |
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Domain Bacteria
(prokaryotic/eukaryotic) (chromosomes?) (composition of cell membrane) (composition of cell wall) (RNA polymerase?) |
prokaryotic
no nucleus or membrane-bound organelles single, circular chromosome with no histones cell membrane of glycerol-ESTER lipids with no sterols cell wall of peptidoglycan (susceptible to antibiotics) one kind of RNA polymerase |
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Domain Archaea
(prokaryotic/eukaryotic) (composition of cell membrane) (composition of cell wall) (RNA polymerase?) (habitat) |
prokaryotic
transcription and translation like eukaryotes cell membrane of gylcerol-ETHER with no sterols no peptidoglycan in cell wall (not inhibited by antibiotics) several kinds of RNA polymerase inhabit extreme environments |
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Facilitated diffusion
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does not require energy, but requires a carrier protein
e.g. insulin carries glucose into cell |
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Active transport
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requires energy from either ATP or electrical charge difference
involves MEMBRANE POTENTIAL which works like a magnet and may cause transport proteins to alter shape to allow for transmission of materials |
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Topoisomerases
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DNA replication: relieve tension by nicking one strand and letting the supercoil relax
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Transcription
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DNA is copied into mRNA in nucleus through initiation, elongation, & termination
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Transcription: Initiation
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RNA POLYMERASE begins at PROMOTER of DNA
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Transcription: Elongation
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RNA polymerase pairs ribonucleotides to deoxynucleotides in 5' --> 3' direction to create complementary mRNA strand
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Transcription: Termination
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occurs at end of gene and is aided by termination factors
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Posttranscriptional processing (3)
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occurs before translation in EUKARYOTES
1.) 5' capping 2.) 3' polyadenylation 3.) intron splicing |
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5' capping
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attaching guanine with a methyl attached to prevent degradation
serves as site where ribosome binds to mRNA for translation |
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3' polyadenylation
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100-300 adenines added to free 3' end of mRNA, resulting in poly-A-tail
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Intron splicing
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non-coding sequences are removed and coding exons are spliced together to form mature mRNA
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Translation
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synthesis of a polypeptide, whose amino acid sequence is specified by the nucleotide sequence in mRNA
occurs in cytoplasm on ribosome |
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Codons
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64 triplet combinations of bases
3 are termination codons 61 are 20 amino acids |
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Translation: Initiation
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methylated tRNA binds to ribosome to form a complex
complex binds to 5' cap of mRNA (AUG) |
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Translation: Elongation
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tRNAs carry amino acids to the ribosome and place them in order according to mRNA sequence
peptide bonds form between successive amino acids and tRNAs are released |
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Translation: Termination
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ribosome reaches stop codon: UAA, UAG, or UGA & release factor is added
new polypeptide undergoes posttranslational modification to alter/remove portions |
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Protein synthesis regulation: Prokaryotes (3)
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1. OPERON systems tie protein synthesis to metabolic activity
2. PROMOTERS on DNA that RNA polymerase recognizes as start sites for transcription 3. REPRESSOR PROTEINS prevent binding of RNA polymerase to promoter |
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Protein synthesis regulation: Eukaryotes (4)
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1. CHROMATIN STRUCTURE - cells can restrict access of RNA polymerase to DNA by chromatin-compacted DNA + histones
2. TRANSCRIPTION INITIATION - promoter & enhancer regions interact with activator & inhibitor proteins 3. TRANSCRIPT PROCESSING - splicing 4. TRANSLATION INITIATION - amount and type of tRNAs present can affect rate of translation |
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Gene splicing
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RESTRICTION ENZYMES excise plasmid DNA at specific sequences
incubation of cut DNA + foreign genetic sequence + ligase = RECOMBINANT DNA |
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Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
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rapidly replicates DNA without using a living organism as a vector
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Gregor Mendel
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father of genetics: genes transfer from parents to offspring
found that 2 "factors" (alleles) governed each trait, one from each parent |
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Law of segregation
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two alleles for each trait segregate into different gametes
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Law of independent assortment
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separate genes for separate traits are passed independently of one another from parents to offspring
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Chi-square (X2) analysis
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evaluates observed deviation from expected phenotype ratios in genetic analysis
X2 = ∑ [ (o – e)2 / e ] |
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P value
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finds probability that observed phenotypes of cross are due to strictly chance
df = n - 1 n = # of different phenotypes < .05: significant difference, reject null hypothesis |
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Virus composition
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protein coat + DNA or RNA
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Lytic cycle
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virus enters host cells and makes copies of its nucleic acids and protein coats and reassembles
lyses out of host cells and infects nearby cells |
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Lysogenic cycle
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virus can remain dormant within cells until something initiates it to break out of the cell, e.g. herpes
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Bacilli
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rod-shaped bacteria
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Cocci
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round bacteria
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Spirilli
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spiral-shaped bacteria
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Gram positive bacteria
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purple
simple cell walls consisting of large amounts of PEPTIDOGLYCAN |
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Gram negative bacteria
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pink
complex cell walls with less peptidoglycan and large amounts of LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDES (resist stain) more toxic & resistant to antibiotics |
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Generalized transduction
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ANY bacterial gene transfered to another bacterium via bacteriophage and typically carries ONLY BACTERIAL DNA and no viral DNA
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Specialized transduction
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RESTRICTED SET of bacterial genes + phage DNA are transferred to another bacterium
donor genes depend on where phage genome is located on the chromosome |
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Transformation
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bacterial uptake of free, foreign DNA from surrounding environment
surface proteins assist this process |
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Conjugation
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direct transfer of bacterial DNA through pili (cytoplasmic bridge)
donor cell has F factor in DNA which induces passage of small portions of chromosomal DNA + F factor genes |
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Fungi reproduction
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short-lived diploid stage
haploid stage commonly observed as absorptive hyphae or asexual reproductive sporangia |
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Non-vascular plants
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lack of roots, conducting tissues, or leaves
rely on absorption of water that falls on plant or high humidity |
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Vascular plants
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synthesis of LIGNIN to give rigidity & strength to cell walls for growing upright
evolution of TRACHEID CELLS for water transport and SIEVE CELLS for nutrient transport underground stems = RHIZOMES |
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Non-seeded vascular plant divisions (3)
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Lycophyta
Sphenophyta Pterophyta |
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Gymnosperms
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seeded vascular plant
first to evolve with seeds and less dependent on water for reproduction seeds and pollen protected by cones and are carried by wind |
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Gymnosperm divisions (4)
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Cycadophyta
Conifera Ginkgophyta Gnetophyta |
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Angiosperms
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seeded vascular plant
largest group in plant kingdom flowering plants with true seeds for reproduction - can remain dormant until favorable conditions |
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Angiosperm division
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Anthrophyta
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Monocots
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type of Anthrophyta
one cotelydon (seed leaf) parallel veins flower petals in multiples of 3 |
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Dicots
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type of Anthrophyta
two cotelydons branching veins flower petals in multiples of 4 or 5 |
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Plants: dermal tissue
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outermost layer of plant leaves, stems, fruits, seeds, and roots
gas exchange, light passage, pathogen recognition |
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Plant epidermis
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type of dermal tissue
single layer of unspecialized cells |
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Plant periderm
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type of dermal tissue (bark)
replaces epidermis on stems and roots prevents excess water loss, protects against pathogens, provides insulation |
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Plants: Vascular tissue
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consists of xylem and phloem to facilitate transport of water and nutrients
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Xylem
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conducts water and transports minerals up from soil with TRACHEIDS and VESSELS
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Phloem
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transport of sugars, amino acids, and other small molecules in plant through SIEVE element cells and COMPANION cells
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Auxins
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GROWTH
promote cell elongation promote apical dominance (main stem to grow strongly) phototropism (bend towards light) stimulate ethylene synthesis simulate cell division inhibit abscission (leaf shedding) |
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Abscisic acid (ABA)
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STAGNANCY
induces seed dormancy inhibits germination promotes closing of stomata during water stress prevents fruit ripening |
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Gibberellins
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GROWTH
promote stem elongation promote flower and fruit formation stimulate growth and development of seeds |
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Ethylene
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GROWTH
induces seed germination, root hair growth, flowering, and ripening |
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Cytokinins
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GROWTH
promote cell division and development in roots and shoots promote photosynthesis |
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Alternation of generations (3 stages)
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1. Diploid sporophyte divides by meiosis to reduce chromosome number to haploid gametophyte generation
2. Haploid gametophytes undergo mitosis to produce gametes (sperm & eggs) 3. Haploid gametes fertilize to return to diploid sporophyte stage |
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Angiosperms: Male gametophytes
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POLLEN GRAINS formed in the anthers at the tips of the stamens
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Angiosperms: Male reproductive organ
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stamen
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Angiosperms: Female gametophytes
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EMBRYO SACS inside of the ovules enclosed by the ovaries
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Angiosperms: Female reproductive organ
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carpel
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Angiosperm reproduction
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SPOROPHYTE is dominant generation
DOUBLE FERTILIZATION: ovum is fertilized by 2 sperm one sperm produces new plant, one sperm is food supply (endosperm) ovule develops into seed and ovary develops into fruit |
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Gymnosperm reproduction
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SPOROPHYTE is dominant generation
use seeds, do not require water |
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Non-seeded plants reproduction
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GAMETOPHYTE is dominant generation
have spores which need water to reproduce |
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Ectoderm becomes...
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epidermis
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Mesoderm becomes...
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muscles & organs (besides gut)
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Endoderm becomes...
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gut, aka archenteron
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Body plan: Sponges
|
simplest animals
lack true tissue asymmetric |
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Body plan: Diploblastic
|
lack mesoderm
no true digestive system radial symmetry e.g. cnideria (jellyfish) |
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Body plan: Triploblastic
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posses all 3 germ layers
acoelomates pseudocoelomates coelomates |
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Acoelomates
|
no defined body cavity
must absorb good from host's digestive system e.g. flatworm (platyhelminthe) |
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Pseudocoelomates
|
body cavity, but not lined with mesoderm tissue
e.g. roundworm (nematoda) |
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Coelomates
|
true, fluid-filled body cavity derived from mesoderm
protostomes & deuterostomes |
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Protostomes
|
1st opening = mouth
2nd opening = anus mesoderm SPLITS to form coelom mollusca, annelida, arthropoda |
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Deuterostomes
|
1st opening = anus
2nd opening = mouth mesoderm HOLLOWS out to form coelom echinodermata & verbrata |
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Blastula
|
hollow ball of undifferentiated cells
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Gastrulation
|
blastula folds inward and tissue differentiates into separate germ layers
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Neuralation
|
development of nervous system
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Organogenesis
|
development of various organs
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Atria
|
receive blood retuning to heart
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Ventricles
|
pump blood out of heart
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Semilunar valves
|
(2)
open upon ventricular contraction to allow blood to be pumped into arteries |
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Sinoatrial (SA) node
|
pacemaker located in wall of right atrium
creates electrical impulse |
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AV valves
|
(2)
between atrium and ventricle close upon ventricular contraction to prevent blood flowing back into atria |
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Atrioventricular (AV) node
|
delays electrical impulse to ensure atria empty before ventricles contract
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Direction of blood flow in cardiovascular system
|
vena cava > right atrium > right ventricle > pulmonary artery > LUNGS > PULMONARY VEIN > LEFT ATRIUM > LEFT VENTRICLE > AORTA > BODY
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Cardiac output
(average) |
volume of blood/min. that left ventricle pumps
depends on: heart rate & stroke volume average = 5.25 L/min. |
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Tidal volume
(average) |
volume of air inhaled and exhaled
average = 500 mL |
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Vital capacity
(average) |
maximum volume lungs can inhale and exhale
average = 3,400 mL |
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Thoracic cavity
|
holds lungs
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Inhalation
|
volume of thoracic cavity increases
diaphragm contracts & flattens |
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Exhalation
|
volume of thoracic cavity decreases
diaphragm relaxes |
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Kidneys
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primary organ of excretory system
receive about 20% of blood pumped from heart |
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Process of excretion in nephrons
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1. Proximal convoluted tubule – small proteins, glucose, and ions are returned to the blood by active transport. Negatively charged ions follow passively, followed by the osmosis of water. About 75% of the filtrate is returned in this section of the nephron.
2. Loop of Henle – salt is actively transported out of the filtrate, and since this area impermeable to water, water cannot follow the ions out here. 3. Distal tubule – secretion (opposite of reabsorption) of waste into filtrate and becomes urine |
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Essential nutrients (4)
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1. Essential amino acids (8)
2. Essential fatty acids 3. Vitamins (13) - organic 4. Minerals - inorganic |
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Essential water-soluble vitamins
|
vitamin B complex
vitamin C |
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Essential water-insoluble vitamins
|
vitamin A
vitamin D vitamin K |
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Essential minerals
|
calcium (bone construction & maintenance)
iron (cellular respiration & hemoglobin) |
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Small intestine
|
site of most nutrient absorption due to large surface because of villi and microvilli
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Pancreas' role in digestion
|
makes enzymes to break down food in the small intestine
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Liver's role in digestion
|
makes bile to break down and emulsify fatty acids
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Steroid hormones
|
come from cholesterol & include sex hormones
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Peptide hormones
|
derived from amino acids
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Hormone receptors response
|
on target tissue cell surface
activates enzyme that converts ATP to cyclic AMP (2nd messenger from cell membrane to nucleus) genes turned on/off |
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Hypothalamus
|
in lower brain
signals pituitary gland |
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Pituitary gland
|
at base of hypothalamus
releases GROWTH HORMONES & ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE |
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Thyroid gland
|
on trachea
CALCITONIN lowers blood calcium levels THYROXIN maintains metabolic processes |
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Gonads
|
in testes and ovaries
testes release ANDROGENS for sperm formation ovaries release ESTROGENS & PROGESTERONE for uterine lining growth |
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Pancreas
|
INSULIN to lower glucose levels
GLUCAGON to raise blood glucose levels |
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Myelin sheath
|
composed of SCHWANN CELLS and cover neurons for isolation
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Nerve action depends on...
|
depolarization and imbalance of electrical charges across neuron
neurotransmitters TURN OFF SODIUM PUMP, which results in depolarization of membrane, giving rise to wave of opening and closing gates that allow for flow of ions across a synapse |
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Ventricles of CNS
|
spaces filled with cerebrospinal fluid
cushions brain and circulates nutrients, WBCs, & hormones |
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Epidermis
|
thinner outer layer of skin
layers of tightly packaged epithelial cells top layer = dead skin cells and is filled with KERATIN to waterproof |
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Dermis
|
thicker inner layer of skin
composed of connective tissue: blood vessels, hair follicles, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands |
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Sebum
|
reaches epidermis from dermis via hair follicles
maintains pH of skin between 3 and 5 |
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Skeletal muscle
|
striated, voluntary
repeating patterns of myofilaments of actin and myosin attached to bones and are responsible for their movement |
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Cardiac muscle
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striated, involuntary
plasma membrane ion channels allow for rhythmic depolarizations without input of nervous system |
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Smooth muscle
|
not striated, involuntary
enables functions such as digestion and respiration in organs less myosin, not as much tension as striated muscles |
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Nerve impulse on muscle
|
nerve impulse > muscle fiber > calcium ions flood sarcomere > calcium ions allow ATP to expend energy > myosin fibers creep along actin > muscle contraction > nerve impulse has passed > calcium ions pumped out and contraction ends
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Compact bone
|
gives strength
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Spongy bone
|
red marrow makes blood cells
yellow marrow in center of long bones stores fat cells |
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Periosteum
|
protectie covering on outside of bone
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Ligaments
|
bone to bone
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Tendons
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bone to muscle
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Ball & socket joint
|
rotation on several planes
e.g. joint between shoulder and humerus |
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Hinge joint
|
movement restricted to single plane
e.g. joint between humerus and ulna |
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Pivot joint
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rotation
e.g. forearm at elbow, hands at wrist |
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Spermatogenesis
|
begins in puberty in males
1 spermatogonia (diploid precursor of sperm) produces 4 sperm |
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Site of sperm maturation
|
seminiferous tubules of testes
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Site of mature sperm
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epididymis on top of testes
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Ejaculation
|
sperm travels up vas deferens where they mix with semen made in prostate and seminal vesicles and travel out urethra
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Oogenesis
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complete by birth
meoisis forms ONE OVUM with all of the cytoplasm and 3 polar bodies that are reabsorbed by the body egg cells not released until menstruation at puberty |
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Storage of ovum
|
ovaries
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Ovulation
|
egg released into FALLOPIAN TUBULES, where fertilization normally occurs
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Non-specific immune response
|
First line: physical barriers of body
Second line: WBCs & inflammatory response |
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First line of non-specific immune response
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skin
mucous membranes pH of skin and mucous membranes |
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Second line of non-specific immune response
|
WBCs perform phagocytosis
Inflammatory response sends more blood to area |
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Neutrophils
|
make up 70% of all WBCs
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Monocytes
|
mature to become macrophages, the largest phagocytic cells
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Natural killer cells
|
destroy body's OWN infected cells instead of invading a microbe directly
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Histamine
|
released by mast cells & basophils (WBC) upon injury of cells, which triggers inflammatory response
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Specific immune response
|
recognizes SPECIFIC foreign material and responds by destroying invader
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Fight or flight pathway
|
hypothalamus releases hormone that acts on pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) that signals the ADRENAL GLANDS to release:
CORITSOL, EPINEPHRINE, & NOREPINEPHRINE - increase blood pressure & heart rate = speeds reaction time, diverts blood to muscles, releases glucose for use by muscles and brain cortisol acts on hypothalamus to STOP hormonal production after threat has passed |
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% carbon in the air that is fixed by photosynthesis
|
10%
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% atmosphere composed of nitrogen gas
|
80%
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Nitrogen-fixing bacteria
|
only few bacteria have enzymes to break triple bonds between nitrogen atoms
live within roots of legumes add nitrogen to soil so it can be taken up by plant |
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Phosphorous Cycle
|
mineral not found in atmosphere
MYCORRHIZAE in fungi and plant roots fix insoluble phosphates to usable phosphorous urine and decayed matter return phosphorous to earth where it can be fixed |
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Pyramid of productivity
|
visual of energy being lost at each trophic level, from producer to tertiary consumer
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Ecological efficiency
|
amount of energy that is transferred between trophic levels
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Biomass pyramid
|
represents total dry weight of organisms in each trophic level
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Pyramid of numbers
|
represents population size of each trophic level
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Carrying capacity
|
total amount of life a habitat can support
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Density-dependent factors
|
as population increases, competition for resources is more intense, and growth rate declines
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Density-independent factors
|
affect individuals regardless of population size, e.g. weather
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Zero population growth rate
|
birth and death rates are equal
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Exponential growth rate
(graph) |
abundance of resources and growth rate is at maximum, resulting in intrinsic rate of increase
graph = J curve |
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Logistic population growth
(graph) |
incorporates carrying capacity into growth rate; as population reaches capacity, growth rate slows down and levels off
graph = S curve |
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Succession
|
orderly process of replacing a community that has been damaged or has begun where no life previously existed
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Primary succession
|
occurs where life never existed before, e.g. flooded area or new volcanic island
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Secondary succession
|
occurs in communities that were flourishing but were disturbed by some source, either man or nature, but not totally stripped
|
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Climax community
|
community that is established and flourishing
|
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Flatwoods
|
most extensive terrestrial ecosystem in Florida
evolved under frequent fire, seasonal drought, & flooded soil conditions various pine trees and understory shrubs resistant to fire |
|
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Coral reefs
|
Florida has only continuous coral reef system adjacent to continental U.S.
over 30 types of corals |
|
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Dunes
|
protect coast against wind and pounding waves
|
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Freshwater marshes
|
wetlands with an open expanse of GRASSES
standing water, act as natural filters |
|
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Freshwater swamps
|
wet, WOODED areas
cypress trees, bay trees, hardwoods epiphytes ("air plants") growing on trees, vines, and ferns |
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|
Hardwood hammocks
|
small areas of hardwood trees that can grow on natural rises of land
occur in marshes, pinelands, and mangrove swamps |
|
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Mangroves
|
grow in and around areas of saltwater
provide protected habitat for marine animals and protect shoreline from weathering red mangroves grow along water's edge black mangroves white mangroves mostly inland |
|
|
Biological species concept (BSC)
(does not apply to) |
a species is a reproductive community of populations that occupy a specific niche in nature
reproductive isolation of populations is primary criterion for definition of species does not apply to asexual organisms, fossil organisms, or distinctive populations that hybridize |
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Habitat isolation
|
species occupy different habitats in the same territory
|
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Temporal isolation
|
populations reach sexual maturity/flowering at different times of year
|
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Ethological isolation
|
behavioral differences that reduce or prevent interbreeding, e.g. pheromones
|
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Mechanical isolation
|
structural differences that make gamete transfer difficult or impossible
|
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Gametic isolation
|
male and female gametes do not attract each other; no fertilization occurs
|
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Hybrid inviability
|
hybrids die before maturity
|
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Hybrid sterility
|
disrupted gamete formation; no normal sex cells
|
|
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Hybrid breakdown
|
reduces viability or fertility in progeny of the F2 backcross
|
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|
Classical taxonomy
|
classifies organisms based on shared & ancestral characteristics (morphology & phylogeny)
subjective because characteristics used to classify may or may not be important from evolutionary process |
|
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Phenetics
|
numerical taxonomy; classifies organisms based on overall similarity by quantifying # of shared characteristics (e.g. morphological, anatomical, behavioral) between species
does not consider evolutionary heritage |
|
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Cladistics
|
determines evolutionary relationships between organisms based on shared traits
shared traits are only important if they derive from a common ancestor |
|
|
Molecular taxonomy
|
classifies organisms based on evolutionary relationships determined by DNA and protein composition
|
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Polymorphism
|
coexistence of distinct types within a species population, e.g. human blood type
|
|
|
Environmental cline
|
pattern of gradual change in a characteristic(s) over the geographical range of species
|
|
|
Factors affecting speciation and evolution (6)
|
1. Heritable variation (due to recombination)
2. Mutations 3. Natural selection - acts on phenotypes 4. Sexual selection 5. Genetic drift 6. Plate tectonics - causes separation |
|
|
Genetic drift
|
chance deviation in frequency of alleles resulting from randomness of zygote formation and selection
particularly influential in small, isolated environments |
|
|
Punctuated equilibrium (Cuvier)
|
species exhibit little or no evolutionary change for most of their geological history (stasis) and then experience rapid divergent speciation over a relatively short period of time
|
|
|
Gradualism (Hutton & Lyell)
|
minor evolutionary changes occur at a regular rate
supported by Darwin |
|
|
Primitive atmosphere
|
reducing atmosphere with no oxygen, but rich in hydrogen, methane, water, and ammonia
|
|
|
Development of life on earth (4 steps)
|
Miller & Urey: Life developed from nonliving materials
1. Nonliving synthesis of small monomers (a.a. + nucleotides) by reducing atmosphere and lightning 2. Monomers combined to form polymers 3. Accumulation of these polymers into droplets (protobionts) 4. Origin of heredity (RNA) |
|
|
Hardy-Weinberg requirements
|
1. No mutation
2. No natural selection 3. Random mating 4. Isolated population (no immigration/emigration) 5. Large population (no genetic drift) |
|
|
Hardy-Weinberg equation variables
|
p2 = AA
2pq = Aa q2 = aa |
|
|
Right to Know Law
|
pertains to chemical substances in the lab
teachers should check the material safety data sheets and substance list for potential hazards in the lab |
|
|
Acid precipitation
|
ph < 5.6
caused by sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides that react with water in the air |
|
|
Phylogeny
|
study of evolutionary relationships
|
|
|
Walter Sutton
|
Chromosome Theory: genes are located on chromosomes
|
|
|
Lac operon
|
inducible (usually off)
high presence of lactose prevents repressor binding, which promotes expression of lactose metabolism genes |
|
|
Trp operon
|
repressible (usually on)
high presence of tryptophan promotes repressor binding, which results in attenuation of transcribing proteins |
|
|
Transpiration
|
evaporation of water from leaves & force that pulls water upward in xylem
|
|
|
First Law of Thermodynamics
|
energy can be changed from one form to another, but it cannot be created or destroyed
|
|
|
Second Law of Thermodynamics
|
in all energy exchanges, if no energy enters or leaves the system, the potential energy of the state will always be less than that of the initial state
as energy decreases, entropy increase |
|
|
Entropy
|
the degree of disorder in a system
inverse relationship with energy |
|
|
Homologous structures
|
same genetic basis (leading to similar appearances), but are used for different function
|
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|
Analogous structures
|
trait or an organ that appears similar in two unrelated organisms that evolved separately; often due to convergent evolution
|
|
|
Southern blotting
|
used to detect specific DNA fragments in a complex mixture
can detect RFLPs and VNTRs, which is the basis of DNA fingerprinting |
|
|
Epistasis
|
gene at one at one locus affects outcome at anther locus
|
|
|
Pleiotropic
|
one gene has multiple effects
|
|
|
Polygenetic traits
|
traits that are controlled by several different genes
usually exist on a continuum of expression e.g. height, skin color |
|
|
Neutrophils
|
white blood cells that engulf invaders and secret a chemical that kill additional invaders on contact
|
|
|
Eosinophils
|
white blood cells that engulf invaders tagged by antibodies
|
|
|
B Cells
(site of development) |
produce antibodies and form memory cells
develop in the bone marrow |
