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118 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
What is food processing?
The Food and Drug Administration(FDA) defines processed food as any food rather than a raw agricultural commodity and includes any raw agricultural commodity that has been subject to processing, such as canning, cooking, freezing, dehydration, or milling.
The objectives of food processing:
Food preservation;
Food safety;
Quality;
Availability;
Convenience.
Food processing is carried out to:
Preserve foods
Reduce/eliminate microbes (except fermentations)
Stop loss of nutrients
Prevent/delay quality loss
Introduce variety of products
Allow consumption of products off-season.
What are shelf stable products?
Some processed foods can be stored at room temperature.
What are basic steps in the processing of foods?
Unit operations.
Ex. Cleaning of the raw food,
Removal of non-food components (stones, soil, stalks, insects, etc.)
Removal of damaged items;
Washing, milling, blending, etc.
Mayor types of food processing include:
Heating, Freezing, Drying, Milling, Extraction, among others.
Heating:
Preservation by heat treatment is the most widely used method for killing microbes.
Pasteurization
A relatively mild treatment.
Purpose: To kill pathogenic bacteria.
Inactivates enzymes and kills many spoilage microorganisms.
Sterilization
Kill all microorganisms.
Ex. Canning and aseptic processing and packaging.
Commercial sterility indicates indicates a shelf-stable product with a negligible level of microbial survival.
Canning
Sterilization of food is carried out in hermetically sealed (airtight) conditioners, such as cans or bottles/jars.
Aseptic processing and packaging:
Food and packaging are sterilized separately. The the food is packaged in a sterile environment.
Three basic methods for pasteurizing milk:
The simplest is batch pasteurization, in which a fixed volume of milk is slowly agitated in a heated vat at a minimum of 145F/62C for 30 to 35 minutes.
Industrial scale operations use the high-temperature, short-time(HTST) method, in which milk is pumped continuously through a heat exchanger and held at a minimum of 162F/72C for 15 seconds---influent flavor a lot.
The Ultra-High Temperature(UHT) method involves heating milk at 625-300 F/ 130-150C either instantaneously or for 1 to 3 seconds, and the products can be stored or months without refrigeration.
Which is affected more by UHT method, milk or cream?
Milk, because cream contains less lactose and protein, so its color and flavor are less affected.
Sterilized milk.
Has been heated at 230-250F/110-121C for 8 to 30 minutes; it is even darker and stronger in flavor, and keeps indefinitely at room temperature.
Who invented canning?
Nicolas Appert around 1810.
What is canning?
Canning is essentially the heating of food that has been isolated in hermetically sealed containers.
How can canning preserve food?
The heat deactivates plant enzymes and destroys harmful microbes, and the tight seal prevents recontamination by microbes in the environment.
What is the arch villain of the canning process?
The bacterium Clostridium botulinum, which thrives in low-acid, airless conditions, oxygen is toxic to it- and produces a deadly nerve toxin.
Who is considered the founder of the modern frozen industry?
Clarence Birdseye.
-He developed a method for quick freezing, and recognized that freezing rate affected food quality.
What is the most expensive freezing method, but results in the highest quality product?
IQF-Individual Quick Freezing.
Involves the immersion of food into a liquid refrigerant (such as liquid nitrogen).
What are cereal or grains?
Plants in the grass family. Ex. wheat, rice, corn, oats, rye.
-rich in carbohydrates, protein
-source of minerals, vitamins.
What are legumes?
Plants in the bean family (Leguminosae). Ex. common beans, lentils, etc.
-seeds rich in protein (2x protein of grains.)
Rich in B vitamins, iron
Low in fat (except soybeans)
Nuts
Large seeds enclosed in hard shell; several different plant families.
-high in lipids (most nuts).
High in B vitamins and protein
Food proteins can be classified as:
Complete or high quality proteins: supply all the essential amino acids in the proportions required by the body. Ex: animal proteins: meats, fish, eggs, dairy, poultry (exception: gelatin)
Incomplete proteins: low in one or more essential amino acids. Most plant proteins are incomplete proteins; soybean proteins are an exception.
Legumes are low in methionine;
Cereals and nuts are low in lysine.
Protein complementation.
Proteins from 2 or more sources can complement each other, by providing the essential amino acid lacking in each one.
What are staple food crops?
Cereal grains.
What are three major cereals produced worldwide?
Wheat, rice and corn.
Cereal milling
Whole grains----Refined grains.
Rice
After harvest, rice is dried and submitted to the first stage of milling (removal of husk, or hull) resulting in brown rice. Brown rice frequently goes through a second stage of milling (removal of germ and bran) resulting in white rice. Nutritional losses occur due to the removal of these parts of the grain; loss of fiber, oil, and B vitamins (such as thiamin, niacin, riboflavin, B-7, folate.)
Which nutrients are enriched un most rice sold in the U.S.?
Iron, thiamin, niacin, and folate.
The structure of wheat?
Bran(rich in B vitamins, minerals and fiber), Germ (10% lipids, rich in B vitamins and minerals), endosperm (starch and protein).
Freezing causes which two kinds of damages?
Chemical: As the water crystalizes, enzymes and other reactive molecules become unusually concentrated and react abnormally.
The other damage is physical disruption caused by the water crystals, whose edges puncture cell walls and membranes. When the food is thawed, the cell fluids leak out of the cells, and the food loses crispness and becomes limp and wet.
Irradiation
Irradiation preserves food by way of high energy particles that damage the DNA and proteins of spoilage microbes.
Powered or Dry Milk
Milk is pasteurized at a high temperature; then about 90% of its water is removed by vacuum evaporation, and the remaining 10% in a spray drier.
Some milk is also freeze-dried.
With most of its water removed, powdered milk is safe from microbial attack.
Most powdered milk is made from low-fat milk because milk fat quickly goes rancid when exposed to concentrated milk salts and atmospheric oxygen, and because it tends to coat the particles of protein and makes subsequent remixing with water difficult.
Raisins
Raisins are naturally brown and have caramel flavor notes due to a combination of browning-enzyme oxidation of phenolic compounds and direct browning reactions between sugars and amino acids.
Freeze-Drying
Freeze-drying is a controlled version of freezer burn: it removes moisture not by evaporation but by sublimation, the transformation of ice directly into water vapor. Ex. Chuno.
The structure of seeds:
An outer protective coat,
A small embryonic portion capable of growing into the mature plant
and a large mass of storage tissue that contains proteins, carbohydrates, and oils to feed the embryo.
Three groups of the most important seeds in the kitchen:
Grains, or cereals
Legumes
Nuts
Which two kinds of nuts are the exception that can grow quickly?
Coconuts and peanuts.
Beriberi plagued rice-eating Asia in the 19th century
Milling removed outer bran layer along with thiamin.
Pellagra in rural poor in Europe and the southern United States in the 18th and 19th centuries.
People adopted corn from Central and South America asa staple food, but without the processing method (cooking in alkaline water) that makes its stores of niacin available to the human body.
What are valuable phyto-chemicals from seeds?
A variety of vitamins, including antioxidant vitamin E and its chemical relatives the tocotrienols.
Soluble fiber: slow digestion, moderate blood insulin and blood sugar levels, and reduce cholesterol levels, and provide energy for beneficial intestinal bacteria.
Insoluable fiber, which speeds passage of food through the digestive system and reduces our adoption of carcinogens and other undesirable molecules.
A variety of phenolic and other defensive compounds, some of which resemble human hormones and may restrain cell growth and thereby the development of cancer
The outer protective coat, called the bran in grains and the seed coat in legumes and nuts
A dense sheet of tough, fibrous tissue.
It is rich in defensive or camouflaging phenolic compounds, including anthocyanin pigments and astringent tannins.
It also slows the passage of water into grains and legumes during cooking.
Milling
Milling breaks the grain into pieces.
Refining
Refining sifts away the bran and germ.
Why people mill and refine grains?
Refined grains are easier to cook and to chew, and more attractively light in color.
And in the case of flours, the high lipid concentrations in the germ and aleurone layer shorten the shelf life of whole-grain flours substantially.
The oils are susceptible to oxidation and develop rancid flavors (stale aroma, harsh taste) in a matter of weeks.
Today most refined cereals are fortified with B vitamins and iron in order to compensate for the nutrients lost with the bran.
What are the differences between long-grain and short-grain rice?
Long-grain rice has an elongated shape, its length four to five times its width with high proportion of amylose.
Short-grain rice is only slightly longer than it is wide with amylopectin, so shot-grain rice is usually very sticky.
Brown rice
Brown rice is unmilled, its bran, germ, and aleurone layers intact.
Packaging functions
To preserve the product
To protect the product from damage
To make the product more attractive to the consumer
To make it easier to transport the product.
Plastic packaging
Versatile-plastics can be flexible or rigid, and can be molded into shapes.
Resistant to acids and other chemicals
Easy to print on
Lightweight
Cheap to produce.
Modified-Atmosphere Packaging (MAP)
Ait in a plastic container can be modified to prolong shelf life and slow down color deterioration.
MAP is used to package
Cold meats
Smoked fish
Cheeses
Salads
Fresh pasta
The advantages and disadvantages of glass packaging:
Advantages: Reusable, Heat-resistant, recyclable, Keeps shape, Low cost
Disadvantages: fragile, safety issues, Heavy
The advantages and disadvantages of metal packaging:
Advantages:Recyclable, lightweight, impermeable, withstands heat processing
Disadvantages:May react with food.
The advantages and disadvantages of card/paper packaging:
Advantages: Easy to print on, cheap to produce, biodegradable, recyclable, can be moulded, can be coated, lightweight.
Disadvantages: not water- resistant, easily damaged.
Three types of environmentally friendly packaging
Reusable packaging
Recyclable packaging
Biodegradable packaging
Three levels of packaging
Primary packaging is seen at the point of sale. It needs to contain and protect the food product, as well as display it and provide information.
Secondary packaging is the middle layer of packaging- for example a cardboard box with a number of identical products inside.
Transit packaging is the outer container that allows easier handling during transfer between factory, distribution centers and retailers.
These are the items on the label that are required by law.
manufacturer's name and contact details
name of the product
description of the product
weight (some foods are exempt, for example bread)
ingredients (listed in descending order of weight)
cooking/heating instructions
storage instructions
shelf life
place of origin
allergy information
The structure of wheat
Bran(Rich in B vitamins, minerals and fiber)
Germ(10% lipids, rich in B vitamins and minerals)
Endosperm(starch and protein)
What are major sources of plant oils?
Palm, soybean, rapeseed, sunflower seed, cottonseed, peanut.
Which country is one of the largest producers of soybean oil?
USA
Which two processes is the crude oil obtained further purified through?
Filtration and refining.
Impacts of fruit and vegetables?
Make an important nutritional contribution to the diet, for their content of fiber, vitamin A precursors (provitamin A carotenoids), vitamin C, folate, potassium.
They also add variety and sensory appeal (taste, odor, texture) to our diet.
Fruit ripening involves a number of changes, including?
Color changes,
increasing sugars,
decreasing acids,
the production of flavor compounds
Softening(textural changes)
What is a plant hormone involved in ripening of fruit?
Ethylene (C2H4)
The examples of climacteric fruits and non climacteric fruits
Climacteric fruits: apple, pear, banana
Non climacteric: citrus fruits, strawberry, grapes.
Extending Post Harvest life of produce:
Temperature Control;
Modified atmosphere
Minimize water loss (maintain high relative humidity; protective packaging).
What is the most efficient way to extend post harvest life of produce?
Temperature control.
It slows metabolic activity.
Egg structures:
Yolk,
white or albumen
Shell membranes
Shell
Egg shell color and yolk color
Egg shell color is due to breed;
Egg yolk color is due to feed.
Two kinds of breakfast cereals?
Hot cereals,
Ready-to-eat cereals.
Dietary deficiencies of eating grains
Beriberi plagued rice-eating Asia----milling machines---lack of thiamin
Pellagra in Europe and the southern Inited States---corn--without the processing method, making its stores of niacin available to the human body.
Oat processing
The first stage os a low-temeprature "roasting"
Then whole groats are then processed into various shapes, all of which have the same nutritional value.
What is the smoke point?
The characteristic temperature at which a fat breaks down into visible gaseous products is called the smoke point.
It depends in the initial free fatty acid content of the fat: the lower the free acid content, the more stable the fat and the higher the smoke point.
Two ways of ripening
One is dramatic: climatic fruits
One is undramatic: non climacteric fruit.
The nutritional value of eggs:
Amino acids,
Linoleic acid
Polyunsaturated fatty acid
Several minerals,
most vitamins
Two plant pigments, lutein and zeaxanthin
Cholesterol in eggs
One large egg contains around 215 milligrams cholesterol.
How to determine egg quality without actually breaking them?
Candle eggs, or place them in front of a light bright enough to pass through them and illuminate their contents.
Egg Grades
It is an approximate indication of the quality of the egg back at the ranch, at the time it was collected.
Deterioration in egg quality
Chemical change: both the yolk and the white get more alkaline (less acidic) with time.
Alkalinization of the white has highly visible consequences: proteins repel each other rather than cluster.
Physical change: the yolk stats out with more dissolved molecules than the white, and this osmotic imbalance creates a natural pressure for water in the white to migrate across the yolk membrane.
A home test of the freshness of eggs:
Put the egg into a pan of cold water; the fresher the egg the sooner it will fall to the bottom; if rotten, it will swim at the top.
Table salt or common salt
sodium chloride (NaCl), an inorganic compounds.
The functions of salt:
Source of essential nutrients both elements are essential to our body. Both sodium and chloride help maintain the body's fluid balance, among other functions. Na is involved in the regulation of blood pressure; Cl is a component of HCl is produced in the stomach,etc.
Taste: saltiness
Food preservation: salting hof meats, fish.
Dietary sources of sodium:
about 75-80% comes from processed foods; 15% from salt used in cooking and at the table and the remaining occurs naturally in foods.
Salt production
Salt mining (rock salt)---95-99% Nacl
solar evaporation--99%Nacl
solution mining--UP TO 99.9%
Iodized salt
In the mid-1920s, iodide supplementation program took effect in the US. (Iodide deficiency was common in the Midwest)
Iodide is an essential nutrient; it is a component of thyroid hormones.
Today, iodized salt is the primary iodide source for many people.
Hygroscopic
As salt is hygroscopic, an additive-anti-caking agent, such as calcium silicate-is frequently added to prevent moisture retention.
Water condition worldwide
Water covers about 70% of the earth, however less than 1% is available as freshwater for human use. Of the freshwater available on Earth, 2/3 is frozen in ice caps and glaciers. Worldwide, over 1 billion people lack access to safe drinking water.
Our drinking water comes from:
Surface water: lakes, reservoirs, rivers, and streams.
Ground water: Underground in aquifers.
Functions of water:
Carrying nutrients to cell and tissues,
carrying waste out of the body;
component of body fluids(saliva, joints, etc)
Participating in chemical reactions
Body temperature regulation.
Water and public health issue
Microbial contamination
Chemical contamination: pesticides, pharmaceuticals, industrial pollutants, etc.
Lead contamination
Prior to 1986, most home plumbing systems were built of copper pipes soldered together with lead. Leaf can leach into tap water (unless the water quality is carefully controlled). Lead is toxic; it may cause irreversible neurological damage, renal disease, among other effects.
Water Fluoridation
Considered one of the 10 great public health achievements of the 20th century.
Fluoridation prevents tooth decay safety. In many regions of the U.S., fluoride is added to water supplies; almost 2/3 of the population receives fluoridated water.
Fluoride is an essential micronutrient.
It makes teeth resistant to acid, it also enhances teeth remineralization. Common dietary sources of fluoride are water, tea, seafood. However, excessive fluoride in the diet during tooth development can cause dental fluorosis, or mottling (spotted teeth).
Why bottled water consumption has more than doubled in the last decade.
Consumers perceive bottled water as safer than tap water.
How many water bottles produced in the U.S. are not recycled?
3/4.
Granulated Table Salt
Small, regular, cubic crystals, are the densest salts, and take the longest to dissolve.
Flake Salt
Flake salts come in flat, extended particles rather than compact, dense granule. Flake salts are produced by surface evaporation of the mother brine, or by mechanically rolling granulated salts.
Preserved Meats
Drying meat in the sun and wind or by the fire removed enough water to halt bacterial growth.
Heavy salting also draws vital moisture from cells.
Canning encloses cooked meat in a sterile container hermetically sealed against the entry of microbes.
Mechanical refrigeration and freezing keep meat cold enough to slow microbial growth or suspend it altogether.
Irradiation of prepackaged meat kills any microbes in the package while leaving the meat itself relatively unchanged.
Food regulations
Governmental agencies regulate all aspects of the food system to ensure a safe food supply, starting at the farm, through proper manufacture practices, inspection of food processing plants, product labeling, and distribution.
When did federal legislation regulating food safety originate?
In the early 1900s.
Food adulteration
Lowering food quality through the use of cheap or inferior ingredients, or mixing of impure or harmful compounds, among others.
This practice cheats consumer and undercuts the competition. It may result in economic loss (fraudulent product), and in health risks to consumers(unsafe product).
Examples of intentional food adulteration in the early 1800s/
Cayenne pepper mixed with mercury sulfide;
Vinegar mixed with sulfuric acid;
Tea with spent and refried leaves
Milk diluted with water.
Who was a pioneer consumer advocate and was referred as the Father of the Pure Food and Drugs Act?
Harvey W. Wiley.
Which law is the first federal pure food law?
The Pure Food and Drugs Act in 1906.
Which law replaced the 1906 law?
The 1938 Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act.
It gave the FDA greater authority over the food and frug industry. It is the main law regulating the U.S. food supply.
Which law regulates that no additive shown to cause cancer in humans (or lab animals) may be used in foods?
1958 Food Additives Amendment (Delaney Clause)
Which law enables the FDA to focus more on preventing food safety problems rather than responding to problems after they occur?
2011 FDA Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA)
Which two federal agencies monitor our food supply?
FDA-Food and Drug Administration
USDA-United States Department of Agriculture.
The FDA
The FDA is an agency of the Department of Health and Human Services.
The FDA is responsible for ensuring the safety of all domestic and imported foods. It has jurisdiction over all food, except for meat, poultry, and egg products. The FDA has also oversight of all seafood, fish, and shellfish products. The FDA is responsible for ensuring that these foods are safe, nutritious, wholesome, and accurately labeled.
The FDA also regulates the labeling and safety of foods rests mainly with the FDA and the USDA, there are about 15 federal agencies involved in administering laws related to food safety.
The USDA
The USDA is responsible for ensuring the safety and labeling of meats (such as from cattle,sheep, swine, goats), poultry (chicken, turkey, ducks, geese, etc.) and some egg products (liquid, frozen, dried). The USDA inspects all meat and poultry animals at slaughter on a continuous basis. Inspectors at processing facilities monitor standards for sanitary conditions, ingredient levels, and packaging.
2014 Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act
Food labels must clearly identify the food source of the 8 most common food allergens: milk, eggs, peanuts, fish, shellfish, wheat, tree nuts and soybeans. Ingredients MUST be listed by their common name, the name of the food source must appear, ex: flour (wheat), whey(milk), lecithin (soy).
Open dating
Open dating is found primarily on perishable foods such as meat, poultry, eggs, and dairy products.
Sell-by Date
Tells the store how long to display the product for sale.
Best if Used by (or before) date
Is recommended for the best flavor or quality. It is not a purchase or safety date.
use-by date
The last date recommended for the use of the product while at peak quality. Use-by dates usually refer to best quality and are not safety dates, For infant formula, the Use-by is the date after which the product should not be fed to infants. FDA regulation require this date on packages of infant formula.
Closed or coded dating
Is for use by the manufacturer; it might appear on shelf-stable products such as cans and boxes of food.