Fsot - Us Government (4)

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Imperial Congress

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Describes a Congress that succeeds in establishing itself as dominant in legislative and foreign policy.

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Imperial presidency

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Term developed by historian Arthur Schlesinger Jr.; refers to presidents who dominate the political and legislative agenda.

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Implementation

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The process by which a law or policy is put into operation by the bureaucracy

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Implied powers

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Those powers in the Constitution that are not listed or delegated. An example of an implied power is the Elastic Clause, giving Congress the right to make laws that are "necessary and proper."

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impoundment

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presidential refusal to allow an agency to spend funds authorized and appropriated by Congress

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In forma pauperis

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A procedure whereby a poor person can file and be heard in court as a pauper, free of charge. (Ch. 14)

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In the US, who needs to approve treaties, and with what percentage?

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The senate, by a 2/3rds vote.

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Incentive

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A valued benefit obtained by joining a political organization. (Ch. 9)

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Income strategy

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A policy of giving poor people money to help lift them out of poverty. (Ch. 17)

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Incorporation Doctrine

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Holds that the Due Process Clause applies to State and Local gov'ts in addition to national

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Incorporation of the Fourteenth Amendment

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Doctrine that made the Bill of Rights apply to the states as a result of Supreme Court decisions. Even though the Fourteenth Amendment was ratified in 1868, incorporation started to take place in the 1920s. It reached a peak during the Warren Court in the late 1950s and 1960s.

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independent agency

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a gov entity that is independent of the legislative, executive, and judicial branches

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Independent Executive Agencies

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Governmental units that closely resemble a Cabinet department but have a narrower area of responsibility (such as the CIA) and are not part of any Cabinet Department

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independent expenditures

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the Supreme Court has ruled that individuals, groups, and parties can spend unlimited amounts in campaigns for or against candidates as long as they operate independently from the candidates

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Independent regulatory agencies

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Agencies that are quasi-legislative and quasi-judicial in nature and operation. Example include the Food and Drug Administration and Environmental Protection Agency.

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independent regulatory commission

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a gov agency or commission with regulatory power who independence is protected by Congress

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indictment

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A written statement of criminal charges brought against a defendant. Guarantee that defendants know the charges against them so they can plan a defense.

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Indirect tax

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Money paid to the government as a result of purchased goods.

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inevitable discovery

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Exception to the exclusionary rule that allows the use of illegally obtained evidence at trial if the court determines that the evidence would eventually have been found by legal means

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Information superhighway

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A linked conglomerate of computer-generated information also known as the internet.

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inherent powers

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the pwers of the national gov in the field of foreign afairs that the Supreme Court has declared do not depend on constitutional grants but rather grow out of the very existence of the national government

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initiative

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process through which voters may propose new laws, one of several Progressive Era reforms that increased voters' power over government

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injunction

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A court order that either compels or restrains an act by an individual, organization, or government official. In laborâ€"management relations, injunctions have been used to prevent workers from going on strike.

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Insider stories

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Information not usually made public that becomes public because someone with inside knowledge tells a reporter. The reporter may have worked hard to learn these facts, in which case it is called "investigative reporting," or some official may have wanted a story to get out, in which case it is called a "leak." (Ch. 10)

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Insurance program

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A self-financing government program based on contributions that provide benefits to unemployed or retired persons. (Ch. 17)

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integration

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The free association of people from different racial and ethnic backgrounds (see ethnicity); a goal of the civil rights movement to overcome policies of segregation that have been practiced in the United States. Those favoring integration of schools by such forceful means as busing or affirmative action have frequently argued that integration of schools will lead to integration of society as a whole. (See separate but equal.)

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Interagency councils

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Working groups created to facilitate coordination of policy making and implementation across a host of governmental agencies.

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interest group

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Political group organized around a particular political goal or philosophy. Attempt to influence public poicy through political action and donations to sympathetic candidates.

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Interest group politics

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The politics of policy-making in which one small group bears the costs of the policy and another small group receives the benefits. Each group has an incentive to organize and to press its interest. See also Majoritarian politics; Client politics (Ch. 15)

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interested money

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financial contributions by individuals or groups in hope of influencing the outcome of an election and subsequently influencing policy

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International Monetary Fund (IMF)

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A clearinghouse for member nations to discuss monetary issues and develop international plans and policies to deal with monetary issues. Regulating monetary exchange rates is its primary task.

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Interstate Commerce Act of 1887

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The Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC; 1887 - 1995) was a regulatory body in the United States created by the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887, which was signed into law by President Grover Cleveland. The Commission's seven members were appointed by the President with the consent of the Senate. This was the first independent agency or so-called "Fourth Branch" agency. The ICC's original purpose was to regulate railroads (and later trucking) to ensure fair rates, to eliminate rate discrimination, and to regulate other aspects of common carriers. The ICC was dissolved in 1995.

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Interstate Commerce Commission

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A federal agency that monitors the business operations of carriers transporting goods and people between states. Its jurisdiction includes railroads, ships, trucks, buses, oil pipelines, and their terminal facilities. The ICC was established in 1887 as the first federal agency.

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interstate compact

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agreement among two or more states, Constitution requires that most such agreements be approved by Congress

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Invisible Primary

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The first phase of the presidential nomination process, where candidates attempt to gain front-runner status and raise the most money.

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iron triangle

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Also called subgovernment. Formed by the close working relationship among various interest groups, congressional committees, and executive agencies that enforce federal regulations.

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Is the bulk of the data assembled by the CIA public or covert?

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Public.

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Isolationism

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The view that the United States should withdraw from world affairs, limit foreign aid, and avoid involvement in foreign wars. See also Containment (Ch. 20)

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issue advocacy

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unlimited and undisclosed spending by an individual or group on communications that do not use words like "vote for" or "vote against" although much of this activity is actually about electing or defeating candidates

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Issue network

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A network of people in Washington-based interest groups, on congressional staffs, in universities and think tanks, and in the mass media who regularly discuss and advocate public policies--say, health care or auto safety. Such networks are split along political, ideological, and economic lines. (Ch. 13)

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Issue-Oriented Politics

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Politics that focuses on specific issues rather than on party, candidate, or other loyalties

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Jim Crow laws

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State and local laws passed in the post-Reconstruction Era South to enforce racial segregation and otherwise restrict the rights of African Americans.

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John Locke

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an important philosopher of the English Enlightenment. He believed that the rights to life, liberty, and ownership of property were given by God and could not be taken away by governments. His philosophy influenced the framers of the Constitution.

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John Marshall

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Third Chief Justice of the Supreme Court (he served 1800-1835). A federalist who worked to increase the powers of the federal government over the states. He established the pricipal of judicial review.

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Joint Chiefs of Staff

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A high-level military advisory board in the Department of Defense, composed of high-ranking representatives of the army, navy, air force, and marines. The Joint Chiefs are responsible for formulating military policy and recommending action regarding issues of national security and international relations.

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joint committee

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a committee composed of members of both the House of Representatives and the Senate; such committees oversee

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joint resolution

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A measure approved by both houses of the United States Congress and signed by the president. Similar to an act of Congress, the joint resolution is used to approve or initiate foreign policy actions, to grant a single appropriations proposal, and to propose amendments to the Constitution.

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judicial activism

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A philosophy of judicial decision making that argues judges should use their power broadly to further justice, especially in the areas of equality and personal liberty

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judicial branch

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The court systems of local, state, and federal governments, responsible for interpreting the laws passed by the legislative branch and enforced by the executive branch. These courts try criminal cases (in which a law may have been violated) or civil cases (disputes between parties over rights or responsibilities). The courts attempt to resolve conflicts impartially in order to protect the individual rights guaranteed by the Constitution, within the bounds of justice, as defined by the entire body of U.S. law. Some courts try only original cases, whereas others act as courts of appeals. The ultimate court of appeals is the Supreme Court. On the federal level, the system of checks and balances empowers Congress to create federal courts, and all federal judges must be appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate. The courts may exercise the powers of judicial review and injunction.

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Judicial Implementation

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Refers to how and whether judicial decisions are translated into actual public policies affecting more than the immediate parties to a lawsuit

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judicial restraint

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A view, associated with Felix Frankfurter among others, that judges should be reluctant to declare legislative enactments unconstitutional unless the conflict between the enactment and the Constitution is obvious. The doctrine is akin to, but not identical with, narrow construction, and it is the opposite of judicial activism.

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judicial review

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The power of the Supreme Court to declare laws and executive actions unconstitutional.

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Judiciary Act of 1789

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Established the basic 3-tiered structure of the federal courts system

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Judiciary committee

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Key Senate committee that is responsible for recommending presidential judicial appointments to the full Senate for approval.

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Jurisdiction

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Authority vested in a particular court to hear and decide the issues in any particular case

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jurisprudence

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(joor-is-PROOHD-ns) The philosophy of law. Jurisprudence implies creating a body of law and methods for interpreting the law, studying the relationships between law and society, and predicting the effects of legal decisions. In the United States, lawmakers, attorneys, scholars, and courts all take an active role in guiding jurisprudence.

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justice of the peace

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A local officer of the judicial branch empowered to try minor cases, recommend cases for trial, and perform civil ceremonies, such as marriages and oath taking. Justices of the peace are usually elected locally and are paid fees for their services.

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kangaroo court

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A court that ignores principles of justice; a court characterized by incompetence and dishonesty.

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Keynote address

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Key speech at the national nominating convention that outlines the themes of the campaign.

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killer amendment

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Amendment to a bill proposed by its opponents for the specific purpose of decreasing the bill's chance of passing.

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Ku Klux Klan

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Nativist hate group founded during the Reconstruction Era. The Klan terrorized African Americans throughout the South, especially those who attempted to assert their civil rights. The preaches hatred of Catholics and Jews.

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Lame duck

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An officeholder who is either defeated or is retiring from the office in which he is serving, but still in office until his successor is sworn in; perceived to have little power or influence.

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Land Ordinance of 1785

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A major achievement of the government under the Articles of Confederation. It created an orderly procedure for the settlement of the Ohio Valley.

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Landrum-Griffin Act?

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The Labor Management Reporting and Disclosure Act (or LMRDA), also known as the Landrum-Griffin Act, is a United States labor law statute that regulates labor unions' internal affairs and union officials' relationships with employers. Enacted in 1959 after revelations concerning corruption and undemocratic practices in the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, International Longshoremen's Association, United Mine Workers and other unions received wide public attention, the Act requires unions to hold secret elections for local union offices on a regular basis and provides for review by the United States Department of Labor of union members' claims of improper election activity.

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larceny

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(LAHR-suh-nee) Theft; taking another person’s property with the intent of permanently depriving the owner.

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Layer cake federalism

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Federalism characterized by a national government exercising its power independently from state governments.

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legislative branch

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(LEJ-i-slay-tiv) The branch of the federal and state government empowered to make the laws that are then enforced by the executive branch and interpreted by the judicial branch. The legislative branch consists of Congress and the fifty state legislatures. At both state and federal levels, legislatures are made up of popularly elected representatives, who propose laws that are sensitive to the needs and interests of their local constituents. After a law is proposed as a bill, it is sent to appropriate committees for several stages of discussion, research, and modification. It is then debated in both legislative housesâ€"except in Nebraska, which has a single-house legislatureâ€"and put to a vote. If the law is passed, it is still subject to further modification and final vote by both houses. Under the system of checks and balances, the president can refuse to sign the bill into law (through the veto power). The legislature can then vote to override the veto. Other checks and balances include legislative powers to impeach public officials (see impeachment), confirm appointments to the executive and judicial branches, and vote on appropriations.

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Legislative Courts

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Courts established by Congress for specialized purposes, such as the Court of Military Appeals

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legislative oversight

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one of Congress's most importat tasks, the investigation and evaluation of the performance of corresponding executive agencies and departments to check the power of the executive branch

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Legislative Veto

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A procedure by which one or both houses of Congress can disallow an act of the president by a simple majority vote; ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court

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Legitimacy

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Political authority conferred by law, public opinion, or constitution. (Ch. 1)

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libel

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A written, printed, or pictorial statement that unjustly defames someone publicly. Prosecution of libel as a punishable offense puts some measure of restriction on freedom of the press under the First Amendment.

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Liberal

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In general, a person who favors a more active federal government for regulating business, supporting social welfare, and protecting minority rights, but who prefers less regulation of private social conduct. See also Conservative (Ch. 5)

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liberalism

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a belief in the positive uses of government to bring about justice and equality of opportunity

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Library of Congress

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The largest library in the United States, located in Washington, D.C., and maintained largely by federal appropriations. Its original purpose was to provide research facilities for members of Congress; today it serves the public as well. Most copyrighted publications are catalogued by the Library of Congress, whose classification system is used by major libraries around the country.

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limited government

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principle of government that states that government powers must be confined to those allowed it by the nation's Constitution

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Line officer?

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A line officer (or otherwise termed "officer of the line") is a military officer who is trained to command a warship, ground combat unit, or combat aviation unit. Officers who are not line officers are those whose primary duties are in non-direct combat specialties (as opposed to those assigned to non-combat duties for a given tour or rotation) such as chaplains, lawyers, supply officers and medical officers (both nurses and doctors). The navy refers to them as Staff Officers. In the United States military, qualified line officers, regardless of rank, would in times of combat have authority over higher ranking non-line officers.

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Linkage institutions

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The means by which individuals can express preferences regarding the development of public policy.

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Literacy test

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A requirement that citizens pass a literacy test in order to register to vote. It was established by many states to prevent former slaves (most of whom were illiterate) from voting. Illiterate whites were allowed to vote by a "grandfather clause" added to the law saying that a person could vote, even though he did not meet the legal requirements, if he or his ancestors voted before 1867. (Ch. 6)

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Litmus test

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In chemistry a way of finding out whether a liquid is acid or alkaline. The term is used in politics to mean a test of ideological purity, a way of finding out whether a person is a dyed-in-the-wool liberal or conservative or what his or her views are on a controversial question. (Ch. 14)

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Loaded language

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Words that reflect a value judgment, used to persuade the listener without making an argument. For example, if someone likes a politician, he might call him "the esteemed Senator Smith"; if he doesn't like him, he might refer to him as "that right-wing or radical senator." (Ch. 10)

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Lobby

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An interest group organized to influence government decisions, especially legislation. To lobby is to attempt to influence such decisions. A lobbyist is a person attempting to influence government decisions on behalf of the group. (Ch. 9)

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lobbying

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engaging in activities aimed at influencing public officials, especially legislators, and the policies they enact

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lobbyist

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a person who is employed by and acts for an organized interest group or corporation to try to influence policy decisions and positions in the executive and legislative branches

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Logrolling

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Mutual aid among politicians, whereby one legislator supports another's pet project in return for the latter's support of his. The expression dates from the days when American pioneers needed help from neighbors in moving logs off of land to be farmed. (Ch. 15)

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Loose construction

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A liberal interpretation of the Constitution.

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Machine

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A party organization that recruits its members with tangible incentives and is characterized by a high degree of control over member activity

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machine, political

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An administration of elected public officials who use their influential positions to solidify and perpetuate the power of their political party, often through dubious means. Machine politicians make free use of the spoils system and patronage, rewarding loyal party supporters with appointed government jobs. Other machine methods include gerrymandering election districts; planting party representatives in neighborhoods; making deals with judges, lawyers, and other professionals; and “buying†votes by offering social services to potential voters. When machine politics was especially strong in the United States, during the latter half of the nineteenth century, politicians would go so far as to offer beer for votes and would embezzle large amounts of public money. Machines also dominated party caucuses and conventions, thereby affecting politics at all levels of government.

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Magna Carta

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1215 document that guaranteed British freemen the right to trial by jury and the right of the Great Council (which represented English nobility) to approve taxes proposed by the monarchy.

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Majoritarian politics

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The politics of policy-making in which almost everybody benefits from a policy and almost everybody pays for it. See also Interest group politics; Client politics (Ch. 15, 17)

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Majority-minority districts

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Congressional districts designed to make it easier for citizens of a racial or ethnic minority to elect representatives. (Ch. 11)

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Malapportionment

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Drawing the boundaries of political districts so that districts are very unequal in population. (Ch. 18)

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Mandate

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A command, indicated by an electorate's votes, for the elected officials to carry out their platforms

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Mandates

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Rules imposed by the federal government on the states as conditions for obtaining federal grants or requirements that the states pay the costs of certain nationally defined programs. (Ch. 3)

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Mandatory spending

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Those appropriation items in a budget that must be allocated. In the federal budget, the majority of spending items are mandatory and include Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid, payment on the national debt, and certain components of defense spending.

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manslaughter

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(MAN-slaw-tuhr) The unlawful killing of a person, without malice or premeditation. Involuntary manslaughter is accidental, such as running into someone with a car. Voluntary manslaughter is committed in the “heat of passion,†as in a spontaneous fight in which one person is killed by a strong blow. Manslaughter is usually considered less serious than murder. Both murder and manslaughter are types of homicide.

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Marble cake federalism

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Also known as cooperative federalism, it developed during the New Deal and is characterized by the federal government's becoming more intrusive in what was traditionally states' powers.

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Marginal districts

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Political districts in which candidates elected to the House of Representatives win in close elections, typically with less than 55 percent of the vote. (Ch. 11)

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Market (television)

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An area easily reached by a television signal. There are about two hundred such markets in the country. (Ch. 10)

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Marshall Plan

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Developed by President Truman's Secretary of State, George C. Marshall, and implemented after World War II beginning in 1947, it gave massive aid to help rebuild Europe after the war.