Final Ref Dates

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John Foxe

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(1517-1587) was an English historian who produced an account of Christian martyrs throughout western history which focussed on the plight of English Protestants in the fourteenth century. The book was widely distributed and helped shape contemporary English opinion towards Catholicism.

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Henry VIII

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(1491-1547) One of the most well-known English monarchs, Henry VIII is probably most famous for his many wives in an attempt to produce an heir. Much more significant was his break from the Catholic Church and the establishment of the Anglican Church of England, which would establish England as a Protestant nation—although he himself defended the Catholic Sacraments, and seemed unwilling to split completely with its ideology.

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Thomas Cranmer

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(1489-1556) He was the Archbishop of Canterbury under Henry VIII, Edward VI and Mary I and was the head of the English Reformation. He helped to annul Henry’s marriage to Catherine of Aragon, which was one of the key reasons why England broke with Rome. He supported the idea of Royal Supremacy. Under Edward VI he wrote the Book of Common Prayer. Under Mary I he was tried and sentenced as a heretic.

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John Calvin

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(1509-1564) was a French theologian and pastor who broke from the Catholic Church in 1530 and who fled to Geneva, Switzerland. He eventually helped develop Geneva’s church policy, reform their church, and town council, and also where he published his book Institutes of the Christian Religion. Denies transubstantiation, but believes in the Elect, and Predestination.

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Jerome Bolsec

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(died 1584) A French theologian and monk turned physician. He thought Calvin’s ideas on predestination ridiculous, and stood up during a sermon to voice his opinions. Eventually he was banished from Geneva in 1551.

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Michael Servetus

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(1511–1553) he was a Spanish theologian and physician who spoke against the Trinity. Servetus was on trial for blaspheming against Jesus, for stating infant baptism was an invention of the devil, and for calling the Trinity a Three-headed Cerberus. He was imprisoned and tried by Calvin, and burned at the stake in Geneva.

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Sebastian Castellio

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(1515-1563) was a French preacher and one of the first members of the reformed church to propagate ideas of religious tolerance. His progressive views also encouraged freedom of thought and conscience; Castellio condemned the killing of men in the name of religious beliefs.

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Nicholas des Gallars

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(1520-15800) pastor, author, and defender of Farel and Calvin. He was a minister in Paris, Geneva and Orléans. He was held in high esteem by Calvin for his works and was subsequently employed by Calvin as an editor, translator and amanuensis. His own work included an annotated version of the French Bible and the New Testament.

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Jacques Lefevre

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(1455-1536) A French theologian who was a precursor of the Protestant Reformation in France. Although he did share some of the ideas would become important to the Reformation, he himself remained a devout Roman Catholic for the rest of his life. He was a favorite of King Francis I, and had his protection even as several of his books were condemned on the grounds of heresy.

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Michel de L’Hopital

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(1507-1573) L’Hopital became the French Chancellor in 1560. He attempted to keep the peace between Catholics and Protestants leading up to the French Wars of Religion and wanted Christians, regardless of faith, to coexist.

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Ignatius Loyola

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(1491-1556) A Spanish knight, priest, and theologian who converted after being severely wounded. He expressed an extreme loyalty to the Pope, and was a key figure in the Counter-Reformation. Founder of Jesuits.

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Council of Trent

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A Catholic reform council held between 1545 and 1563. The main goals of the council were to reaffirm Roman Catholic beliefs and generate reform within the institution itself in order to counteract the Protestant Reformation. The council upheld traditional Church doctrine and categorically condemned Reform theology as heresy.

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Marie Dentiere

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(1495-1561) lived in Geneva and played an active role in religion and politics. Preaching alongside reformers such as Calvin and Farel, Dentiere contributed to the closure of several Geneva convents.

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Arugla Von Grumbach

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(1492-1554) was a Bavarian noblewoman who, after becoming involved in the protestant reformation by attending debates, began writing heavily in defence of Martin Luther. She gained fame after writing to the University of Ingolstadt in an attempt to free a recently arrested Lutheran student.

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Phillip II

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(1527-1598) King of Spain (and Netherlands), he issued the edict of 1555 reaffirming Spain as a Catholic nation, that would take no tolerance for any other religions.

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Mary Stuart

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(1542-1587) was also known as Mary Queen of Scots. During her lifetime Mary made several claims on Elizabeth’s throne, justifying such claims by through a series of hereditary rights. Cautious of her position, Elizabeth had little choice but to execute Mary in 1587.
Acceded the throne of Scotland when she was 6 years old. She lived in France for most of her life and was married to the Dauphin of France. Her marriage to James Hepburn caused an uprising and was forced to abdicate the throne to her son James. After an attempt to regain her throne she fled to England. She previously had declared herself the rightful sovereign and many English Catholics supported her. She was imprisoned by Elizabeth after she deemed her a threat and was later found guilty of a plot to assassinate Elizabeth and was executed.

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William of Orange

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(1533-1584) this man was the governor of the Netherlands under the Spanish. Tired of Spanish control, he joined the Dutch revolt, becoming a significant leader against the Spanish. He was assassinated in 1584.

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Henri IV

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(1553-1610) The King of Navarre who became King of France after the death of King Henry III. He issued the Edict of Nantes in 1598, which granted many rights to French Protestants.

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St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre

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on August 23-24, 1572 was a targeted group of assassinations, followed by a wave of Catholic mob violence, both directed against the Huguenots (French Calvinist Protestants), during the French Wars of Religion.

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Michel de Montaigne

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(1533-1592) Frenchmen who wrote “Apology for Raymond Sebond”. writes that human reason is faulty. We are too topsy-turvy, as one second we can be Protestant, and another, Catholic. We change on a whim, whether that means we’re hungry, tired, peaceful, feeling sick.
When we disagree with someone, we think that automatically makes them a heretic; we are blind to other’s opinions because we are so set on our own; prideful. We need God to comprehend the world, and the Truth, because we are wretched apart from Him.

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Raymond Sebond

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(1385-1436) taught medicine and philosophy before becoming a professor of theology at Toulouse. His Theologia Naturalis, written around 1435, argued that reason was not anti-religious and that it was simply human nature to inquire after the nature of things. Such inquisitions could only strengthen faith, according to Sebond.

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John Knox

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((1514-1572) was educated at the University of St. Andrews before he became a Roman Catholic clergyman. During his lifetime Knox converted, and was a leading figure in the Protestant Reformation that frequently clashed with Mary, Queen of Scots. Today, he is credited with the creation of the Presbyterian denomination in Scotland. Wrote the Blast of Trumpet against women in places of authority.

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Galileo Galilei

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(1564-1642) Was an Italian philosopher, mathematicians and astronomer. During the renaissance he contributed much to scientific progress such as proving heliocentricism, which still remained debated during his lifetime and caused conflict with the Catholic Church.