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303 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Tragedy of the Commons
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When people follow logical private incentives, in a commons, it leads to a perverse equilibrium in which everybody is worse off.
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Carrying Capacity
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Maximum amount of herd that can fit in an environment before the soil becomes compacted and eroded and “weedy plants” form.
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Angels/Non-Angels
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Description made by James Madison. An angel might ignore personal incentives to add to a commons understanding it leads to shared negative effects on whole, but non-angel (all humans) will take small benefit at cost for all, rather than no benefits at all.
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Competitive Advantage
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The means by which a firm/person/country manages to keep making money and sustain its position against its competiters.
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Managed Commons
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Commons which are protected from ruin by limiting each herdsmen/companies to a fixed number of animals/oil production/etc.
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Hutterite Communities
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Religious people in Northwestern United States who lived by a communistic system in which they avoided the tragedy of the commons by limiting themselves. (Due to limited amount of members; not corrupted by amount).
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Scale Effect
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When size of a community alters the properties of a system. (More non-angelic people can corrupt system and create tragedy of commons.)
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Savings and Loans (S&L) Crises
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A situation where a tragedy of the commons occurred due to the creation of the FSLIC. Depositors were able to make risky moves on their own that in the end caused a perverse situation.
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BUsiness as Usual (BAU) Path
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The path of no change in Global Energy policy.
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Carbon Pricing
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Tax on gas usage.
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Technology Pricing
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Idea that government should support policy to encourage innovation of energy efficient products.
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Cap and Trade
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Carbon leaders are given certain amounts of carbon and they can buy leftovers from other companies.
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Specialization and Exchange
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People did things they’re good at and then exchanged for other things that others were good at. (All benefit from this system).
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Opportunity Cost
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The value of the next-best choice available to someone who has picked between several mutually exclusive choices. (One can specialize in cheese or corn for example).
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Comparative Advantage
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Product that a country can produce with a smaller opportunity cost than its trading partners. (If country A makes cheese better than it makes corn, and country B makes corn better than cheese, they each have a comparative advantage to make one product, because their trading partners would each have larger opportunity cost for opposite.)
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Mercantilism
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Belief that exports are good and imports are bad.
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Prohibition
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A ban on certain foreign goods.
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Tariffs
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A tax imposed on certain foreign goods that are not imposed on similar domestic goods.
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Quota
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A limit on the quantity of certain foreign goods.
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Consumers
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A big group that benefits from free trade because countries are able to specialize and export, but are poorly organized
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Import Competitors
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A group of people who benefit from trade restrictions, and are very well organized.
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Exporters
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A group that benefits from foreign open trade, and are well organized.
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Free Trade Prisoner Dilemma
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People tend to close trade because although best would be both open, people don’t want to open and have competitor close cause that would be worst situation.
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Absolute Advantage
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When a country is more efficient in creating multiple goods than another country. (In economics, this doesn’t mean that the country wouldn’t benefit from specialization and exchange).
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Wine-Cloth Example
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Although one has an absolute advantage, both would benefit from specialization and exchange because each have a separate cooperative advantage. Exchanging would provide benefits for both.
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Heckscher-Ohlin Model of International Trade
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A model that says that countires will export products that utilize their abundant and cheap factor(s) of production and import products that utilize the countries' scarce factor(s).
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Stolper Samuelson Theorem
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Free international trade benefits a country’s abundant resource and harms that country’s scarse resource.
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Trade Adjustment Assistance
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Something offered to people to help them in changing trades.
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Wage Insurance
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Insurance for those who lose job.
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Reciprocity
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Idea of making mutual concessions
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Free Trade Areas
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When two countries agree to have same tariffs with rest of world, but engage in free trade with one another.
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Custom Unions
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When a group of countries have free trade with each other, and then have tariffs on non-members.
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Administrated Protection
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Special tariffs, quotas, or other restrictions on imports that are allowed under GATT. The treaty allows the various forms of administered protection for a variety of reasons, including to enable a country to address specific domestic concerns and to promote macroeconomic stability. Policymakers often refer to administered protection as trade remedies.
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Antidumping Duty
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A tariff used to raise the price of dumped product
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Beggar-they-Neighbor Policy
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A tariff, imposed by a large country, that causes the world price of a good to fall. (This fall in the world price benefits importing countries and hurts exporting countries.)
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Bilateral Opportunism
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The practice by which one country, after negotiating a bilateral trade agreement with a second country, goes on to negotiate a bilateral trade agreement with a third country that undercuts the benefits that the second country expected to receive under its agreement.
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Countervailing Duties
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Tariffs used to offset the advantage foreign exporters have over domestic producers in cases in which foreign exporters receive subsidies from their governments.
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Dumping
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Selling a product in an export market at a price below its “Normal value.” GATT defines normal value as the price a good sells for in its home market or a third country’s market, or as the average cost of its production.
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Measured Retaliation
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A mechanism to enforce the WTO rules. If one country violates a WTO rule and the violation reduces trade from a second WTO member country, the WTO may authorize the second country to punish the first country by allowing the second country to violate a WTO rule (for example, by raising a tariff). This punishment should reduce trade from the offending first country by roughly the same amount as the trade reduction caused by the original violation.
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Negotiating Round
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A meeting of GATT/WTO members at which members negotiate reduction in tariffs and/or changes to GATT/WTO trading rules.
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Nondiscrimination
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The policy of treating all of one’s trading partners equally. A country is practicing nondiscrimination if it charges the same tariff on imports of a product (for example, five percent on shoes) without regard to where the product is made.
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Price Undertaking
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An agreement whereby a foreign firm accused of dumping agrees to raise its price. If the price increase is large enough, the importing country agrees not to impose an antidumping duty.
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Regional Trade Agreement
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An agreement among two or more countries in which the tariffs they impose on one another’s goods are lower than the tariffs they impose on goods from other countries. These agreements are also known as preferential trade agreements.
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Preferential Trade Agreements
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An agreement among two or more countries in which the tariffs they impose on one another’s goods are lower than the tariffs they impose on goods from other countries. These agreements are also known as Regional trade agreements.
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Safeguards
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Temporary tariffs, quotas, or tariff-rate quotas that protect an industry from fair foreign competition.
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Tariff Preference
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The difference between a country’s nondiscriminatory tariff and the tariff applied to imports from a particular country due to participation in a regional trade agreement or application of a special tariff like an antidumping duty.
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Terms of Trade
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The price of a country’s exports divided by the price of its imports. An increase or improvement in the terms of trade raises a country’s welfare.
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Voluntary Export Restraint
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An agreement whereby an exporting country reduces its exports to some importing country. VERs are also known as Orderly Marketing Agreements (OMAs), Voluntary Restraining Agreements (VRAs), and Export Restraint Agreements (ERAs), among other terms.
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PUblic Goods
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Broad things that are not rival or excludable and that we enjoy without paying costs.
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Externality
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Effect of a choice on an outsider who has no say in decision
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Negative Externality
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One gets all benefits, but pays no cost. (Rector drives, but doesn’t pay for pollution).
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Positive Externality
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One does something and all benefit, but that person pays the cost. (Bagpipe player plays cost of blowing and getting tired, and all else get benefits).
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Rival Good
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A good where one person’s consumption of it lower’s supply to others. (Food, road space).
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Nonrival Good
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A good used by some and continues to be just as available.
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Excludable Good
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A good that could be taken away from consumers.
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Non-Excludable Good
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Things that are not realistic to exclude from only some. (National Defense)
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Napleese Irrigation
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An example of collective Good. Top gets most water, but they support the lower towns because the lower town builds canals for the top. (Shows that this collective good can be excluded to the bottom town.) Also shows- Sometimes IOs pass things that don’t help.
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International Institutions
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Coalitions in which states agree to a specific rule and make a mechanism in which to enforce the rule.
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Repetition
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When a country cheats on an agreement an institution can signal that that’s not allowed by authorizing a response.
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Community
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Feeling of mutual ideas and rules amongst states.
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Privledged Country
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A country that is bigger than others and for which costs are proportionately easier to pay.
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Economic Coercion
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One can economically pressure another country into joining an institution.
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Collective Action Problem
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Personal incentives to not act, when all suffer due to group inaction. (For example, countries may concede to a threatening country to avoid punishment, but if all do so, all surrounding countries are threatened). Germany and Soviet Union.
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Joint Defense
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A Public Good. (Non-rival and non-excludable). (NATO)
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2+4 Talks
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Peace talks between East Germany and West Germany; Lead to new membership of NATO
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Partners for Peace
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When Poland and other eastern European countries wanted to join NATO, USA said no, but allowed them to join PFP. (Lead to NATO).
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Europe-Atlantic Partnership Council
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When Romania and other countries wanted to join NATO, and then PFP, USA said no, but allowed them to join the E-A.P.C. (Lead to NATO).
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Isolationism
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Sentiment of American people for much of history. (Break from this occurred with NATO).
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Unilateralism
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When a country takes action into their hands alone
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Iron Curtain
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Symbolic description of the gap that broke out between NATO and the Warsaw Pact.
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Revisionism
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The reexamination of historical events or facts.
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Marshall Plan
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Plan by USA in which they offered economic assistance to any country that wanted it.
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Vandenberg Resolution
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Something passed by Senate on June 11, 1984 that endorsed the progressive development of regional self-defense.
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NATO
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A solution to the Collective Action Problem of the Soviet Union. (A system of Joint Defense).
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End of Art Seizing
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Military dominating countries used to steal art, and yet in modern days it has become a norm of the global community to not do this.
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Sovereign Debt Enforcement
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When international loans were taken, the loaner used to attack militarily to take the money back. Now its different. (If Mexican government can’t pay back debts, USA will not bomb them). Example of community norms that are accepted that say certain action is not acceptable.
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Chemical Weapons Taboo
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People don’t use chemical weapons because community norms say that is not acceptable.
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Military Equipment Purchases
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Countries buy fancy military items even though they’re not needed in an attempt to fit the community norms.
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Human Rights Laws Enforcement
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Many choose to follow Human Rights Laws, although they are costly because they don’t want to break from community norms.
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Community
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A group of people with common social identity that are recognizable.
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Social Identity
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When people have similar ideas about how people should act. (Human Rights, Free Trade, Democracy).
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Recognizable
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You can tell who is like you, and who is not.
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Logic of Consequences
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When one does something based on anticipation of the results. (Ex: Bomb Iran to reserve leverage/Don’t bomb Iran to avoid reprisals).
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Logic of Appropriateness
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To choose actions based on a sense of right and wrong. (Ex: Bomb Iran because of transgression/Don’t Bomb Iran because violence is wrong).
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Norm
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A pattern or behavior one adopts that’s appropriate to their identity.
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Thin Norm
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Actors behave in accordance with the norm in response to social pressure.
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Thick Norm
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Actors internalize the norm, acting in accordance with it because they believe it to be just. (Start to believe norm).
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Markers
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Things that are used to show how people are insiders or outsiders of a community of norms. (To join NATO is a marker of being part of a Democratic community).
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Global Partnership
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Alliance between NATO countries and non-European states that are willing to form Democratic allegiances.
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Article 10
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Section of NATO agreement that said that if all parties of NATO agree unanimously, they can invite another European state to further the principles of the treaty.
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Article 5
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The section of the NATO Agreement that stated an attack on one country of North America or Europe is an attack on all, and that a response is necessary.
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Article 6
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The section of the NATO agreement that said that an armed attack was defined as an attack on territories of Europe/North America/Algerian departments of France/territories under jurisdiction of any of these countries/forces, vessels, or aircraft of these countries.
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International Security Assistance Force (ISAF)
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A military force that is controlled by NATO, and has done a lot of fighting in Afghanistan.
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The Hundred Years War
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A war that changed the way war was fought, in which war was less of a nobleman war and more of a nation-civilian-fought-war.
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Battle of Agincourt
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One of the main battles of the Hundred Years War, in which the Longbow first became prevalent. Its emergence allowed peasants to gain power in war, and for this reason, war changed from a noblemen-knight war, and more of a civilian-nation war.
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Treaty of Westphalia
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A treaty that ended thirty years war, and created a new system in which kings acknowledged each other’s existence in government in which each side now has rights and accountability.
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Rights
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Each prince or king decides religious composition of kingdom for himself.
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Accountability
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Each prince or king is responsible for the harms that his subject inflict on other principalities. (If King A’s peasant goes and kills a peasant of King B, King A must punish peasant A rather than have King B attack Kingdom A).
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Terra Nullios
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The assumption used in Australia that nobody lives there. (It was for this reason that the British settlers killed all the native people). Since there was no king in Australia, the British couldn’t make a treaty, and thus massacre occurred.
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Treaty of Waitangi
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Treaty made by settlers and New Zealand natives in which the two worked out a peaceful plan. Peace was able to occur here because there was a king of the New Zealand natives that facilitated a treaty-making process.
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Transnational Religious Violence
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A Negative Externality in which a member of a country kills someone of a second country, and that second country says to the first country that it can either punish rude murderer, or be attacked by that second country.
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USA-Afghanistan Sovereignty Issue
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When Al Qaeda attacked, USA threatened to attack if Osama Bin Ladin wasn’t given to them. (He wasn’t, so USA attacked).
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Geneva Convention
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A convention in which countries made rules of war. (Norms within a community). Allowed wounded soldiers to go, protected rights of POWs, banned torture, banned killing of civilians. Sovereign leaders were now expected to follow these norms, and if the didn’t they could be punished.
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Universal Declaration of Human Rights
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Belief in religious freedom and safety from oppression was a new norm in the global community created by this declaration. (Countries were now responsible to enforce these norms, or they could be thought of breaking commitment of global community). Justify attack.
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European Court of Human Rights
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A court in which individual citizens could take governments to court through suits if they believed they were breaking community norm of Human Rights. (Example: Gay soldiers were kicked out, and than went to ECHR, and won, so policy was changed).
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Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)
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Groups created to pressure multiple governments at same time, and push for certain norms. (Red Cross/Green Peace). Peasant B can talk to Peasant A to get them to get King A to pressure king B.
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Mount Tongariro
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A mountain in New Zealand where Lord of the Rings was filmed. Pictures of it weren’t allowed to be taken because it is a holy site not to be photographed to the native people. New Zealand enforced this, and didn’t allow LoR to show picture. This shows that within sovereign country, there are many different sectionalized groups that are sovereign as well.
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First Kashmir War
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War between Pakistan and Indians where Pakistan wanted separation from India.
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Bangalee National Movement
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Bangladesh tries to separate from Pakistan and Pakistan cracks down on Bangladesh so much that India is forced to attack Pakistan in return.
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SWAT Agreement
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Federal government pulls out in Pakistan. This failed as terrorism continued after exit.
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Sovereignty Assumption
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An inaccurate assumption that sovereign accountability is possible in places like Pakistan, Palestine, Colombia, and Somalia when it is not possible because there is not one sovereign government.
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Hypocrisy
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American leaders maintain fiction that state-to-state relations is what is happening in Pakistan, when in reality it is direct intervention on the side of one army of a civil war.
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Pelopenesian War
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War between Sparta and its allies against Athens. (Athens can be seen as a country that gained too much power, and was defeated because of it).
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Athenian Long Wall
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Athens built an enormous wall around their city after Persians left. (This made other countries fear because it made them stronger). This is because less would be needed for defense, and thus more could be used for Offensive attack.
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Sparta War Debate
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There was a debate at Sparta where Corinthians wanted Sparta to take care of Collective action problem created by Athenian agression, while Athens wanted Sparta to understand they were protectors of Greece. (This is an example that smaller states will typically try to balance power and go to weaker country).
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Testable
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One of the qualifications for a model to be good. It is a model that makes a prediction that can be proven true or false
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Parsimonious
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One of the qualifications for a model to be good. It is a model that has very few “if” statements. (An equation should not try to solve everything, but simply one thing).
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Internal Model
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Something that looks at a specific questions and answers it based on that one entity, rather than system as whole. (Why do birds fly? Birds have wings and a brain that understands how to fly).
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Systemic Model
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A model that looks at a specific question and answers them based of of the entire system. (Why do birds fly? Because birds that could fly survived, and those who couldn’t died).
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Model of Balancing
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If states wish to survive, powerful states are more of a threat to a state’s survival than weak foreign states, and states can form coalitions with one another in order to defeat powerful foreign states, than states will generally tend to join the weaker of two coalitions.
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Model of Bandwagoning
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States will join strongest, and this will lead to great empires. (Not as accepted by Political Scientists as Balancing).
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Potidea
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The Colony of Corinth that was being threatened by Athens.
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Persian War
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The war between Persia and Greece where Athens was the main military fighter that protected Greece.
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Pausanias
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Ruler of small Island in Greece where people didn’t Pusanias. For this reason, Athens took over power.
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Battle of the River Eurymedon in Pamphylia
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Persians had control over these islands, and the Athenian army had lead charge against them, and took control.
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Thirty Years Truce
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The signed agreement where Athens, Sparta, and the allies made peace. In this deal, Athens gave up all the lands of the Pelopenesian area.
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Samos-Miletus War
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Two countries in the Pelopenesian area had war over Priene. After Miletus asked for support, Athens entered area and provided democracy in the Priene territory. Samians and Byzantines revolted though. (Eventually after long war, Athens beat them).
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System Effect
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The idea that people can make predictions about a system as a whole, but they cannot make a prediction about a single unit within a system. (Ex: Weather-General predictions; Not specific Cloud. Ex2: Prices in market; Not a specific neighborhood crop.
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Fluid Alliances
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Ability to form alliances depends on fluidity to leave “old ally.”
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Balancing Game
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Game small countries must play if they plan on surviving. If they do not, there is a good chance that they will be engulfed by powerful nations.
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Polarity
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The amount of nations that are most powerful states in the system.
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Multipolarity
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A system where there are many great powers: Europe through 1914.
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Bipolarity
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Two Great powers: Cold War - USA vs. S.U.
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Coalition Effects
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When a country acts too powerfully, they can trigger group responses against them as a coalition.
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US Primacy
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A system where USA is the sole superpower spreading good.
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The What We are Theory
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The idea that Americans are attacked or disliked because of what we are. (Hegemon). People know that America has great power, and thus can use whatever policy they want.
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Preemption
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A strategy used by the USA in which they attack before an enemy is powerful enough to be a threat. (This triggers a lot of foreign dissent, and people might form against USA for balancing stake).
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Gold Standard Abandonment
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USA abandoned the gold standard in 1971 showing that their commitment to group decisions are not necessarily always credible.
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Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty
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USA abandoned this as well in 2001 to show that they were able to break from international binds.
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Khmer Rouge
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American intervention in Cambodia unintentionally caused instability, and this lead to the emergence for Khmer Rouge, and contributed to massive genocide. (Shows how USA power can lead to unintentional harm towards other nations. Reason for discontent with USA).
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Afghan Mujaheddin
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USA supported the Afghan Mujaheddin, and eventually this group formed into the leaders of global network of Islamic terrorists. (Shows how USA intervention can lead to unintetntional harm towards other nations. This is a reason for discontent with the USA).
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Madrid Subway System
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USA got Spain to support war in Iraq, and this lead Al Qaeda to make an attack on Spain.(Shows how USA intervention can lead to unintentional harm towards other nations. This is a reason for discontent with the USA).
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Cultural Shadow
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American’s dominance leads to an increased cultural presence in other countries. Islamic leaders have used this to say USA represents evil sexual, greedy society. Meanwhile, Europe considers USA to be barbaric.
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Cultural Genocide
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The idea that American culture is taking over traditional beliefs in other countries.
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What We Do Theory
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Resentment is caused by what we do. (Ex: Osama Bin Ladin attacks due to occupation in the Arab peninsula as well as for our support for Israel.
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American Track Record
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Something that weakens USA rhetoric of moral light. (They have supported armed rebels in Nicaragua, Afghanistan, Angola, etc./ Overthrew government officials/ Supported sometimes questionable governments).
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Historical Grievances
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When countries commit bad crimes, the result can sometimes be that other countries don’t forget for a long time. (Nazis/Imperialist J). This is why Iranian-American politics is so tense. (Memories of Shah).
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Kosovo Intervention
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A situation where suffering of civilians at least brought a good at the end. Meanwhile, Iraq intervention is seen as a negative thing since no good came from it in their eyes.
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Double Standard of Democracy
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Countries don’t like that America acts hypocritically, and scolds other nations for things they commit as well.
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Unipolarity
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A system with one superpower.
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Hegemon
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A powerful state that dominates over others. (This state doesn’t need to attack other states to be a Hegemon. This Hegemon can gain power through a combination of coercion and public goods. (One can be a regional or global Hegemon).
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B-2 Bomber
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Weapon created by USA which can destroy enemy without putting any American soldiers in trouble. (Shows USA’s dominance).
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Diego Garcia
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This is the Island where the USA keeps their B-2 Bombers. This is rented from Britain, and it is clear that Britian won’t be getting that back, even if they want it. (Shows how they are the dominant country).
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Caravel
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A technological innovation made by Portugal that allowed for their merchants to sail against the wind. This allowed them to become supreme in trading, and let them become powerful. (This triggered an attack from Spain because they were too powerful).
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Modern Banking
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Holland was most powerful country for a long time because they figured out how to use modern banking, and this made them able to lend money to many. (This allowed the Dutch East India Company to gain supremacy). This increase of power lead to their collapse.
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Textile Development
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Britain took power because they became dominant in textiles. Britain used trick of borrowing great amount of money, and convinced lenders they would pay back since they had a parliament. Their power caused Napolean to take over as new power.
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Preventive War
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When a Hegemon fears a decline in their power, they will try to destroy the new rising power. (Ventian-Genoese War/Portugal-Spain war/Napoleonic War/Britain-Russia War/British-Confederacy Informal Alliance/ WWI/WWII.
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Hegemonic Peace Enforcement
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Due to Hegemon’s disproportional desire for peace and stability, they often create peace organizations.
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Pax Britanica
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A period when Britain controlled most naval passage ways, and wanted to stop war to help business. (He didn’t want South American countries fighting. (Shows Hegemonic desire to maintain peace and stability).
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Pax Romana
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Roman desire to maintain peace.
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Pax Americana
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Goal to keep world peace through enforcement. (Counter terrorism?)
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Japanese Flaws
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Hesitant to have immigration and low birthrate.
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European Flaws
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As separate countries they are two small demographically and economically to be a threat, and they differ in politics too much to ever be successful in combining.
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Chinese Flaws
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Political Instability/Inflated statistics/environmental restraints.
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Power Resource
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When a country specializes in the creation of something militarily dangerous, like bombs. (The original country would feel vulnerable letting that country develop a power resource).
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Market Access Coercion
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Market access can be limited through sanctions or full economic sanctions to punish a country for actions, and coerce them to change. (During Apartheid, the other countries punished them with a full economic sanction/ World put sanction on Iraq until they allowed weapons inspection/ USA has full economic sanction on Cuba due to Human Rights violations.)
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Free Trade Agreements Rewards
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If countries have beneficial trade policies, a country can give that country access to free trade agreements. (Canada, Mexico, DR, CA have economic policies that USA likes, so America makes free trade agreements/ Jordan, Bahrain, Morocco are allies in security threats to USA, so they get more free trade).
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Market Dependence
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Through specialization, a country can grow dependent on other countries’ markets since they do not produce it themselves. (This can give the bigger country (country not dependent) more power, and the ability to coerce).
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German market Dependence
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Hitler demanded policies from Eastern European countries dependent on Germany economically, so they said yes.
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USA-Hawaii Dispute
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USA wanted Hawaii, and since Hawaii was interconnected, they needed to say yes.
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Two Costs of War
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1. Life/property/military. 2. Economic losses. (Markets blocked off).
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Costly Signals
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In order to make a rival believe that your threat is serious, they can do something expensive and economically costly to show commitment. (The country putting the sanction on, must be seriously harmed as well, if the the threat is going to be considered credible).
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Taiwanese Dependence
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Taiwan has become dependent on China economically.
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Internationalist
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A way to act that China has developed in particular in which China rarely makes negative economic trade policy moves because they want to continue trade between the two countries. (Local leaders in China are much more internationalist, and want to continue trade).
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Chinese Signaling
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The Chinese try to do non-economic signals because they don’t want to disturb economics. (Bombing water).
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Green Groups
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Nationalist groups that want Taiwanese businesses. China has signaled resolve on stopping Taiwanese independence by attacking these green groups even though its costly economically.
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Constraint
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If a country would have costs through intervention, they might hold back.
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Information
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More information leads to better decisions. (If a country has more information, they can send more signals, and this can show more resolve).
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Transformation
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When countries are going to interact more, they’ll start to have similar goals.
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Security Council Resolution
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A resolution where all of the P5 are to agree, and 9/15 of the total members.
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Presidential Statement
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A nonbinding resolution that requires all fifteen.
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Press Statement
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Something that needs all fifteen votes, and would be something like a comment of disapproval after a terrorist act.
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Outright Hostility
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When a country goes out and militarily attacks another country. (Athens attacking other areas in Greece).
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Unified Indifference
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If a Hegemon doesn’t care about what happens in the rest of the world, it will appear like this Hegemon is not sensitive to other cities’ concerns. (Other countries will feel as if its threats are credible).
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Coercive Action
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When a country changes a second countries interests."Do what I say, or I'll attack."
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Agenda Action
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When a country changes a second countries’ options. (Example is USA leading charge to establish WTO to get countries to open markets).
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Consciousness Action
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When a country uses manipulation to change another country’s mind. Also known as Soft Power
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Soft Power
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When a country uses manipulation to change another country’s mind. Also known as Consciousness Action
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Antonio Gramsci
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He was a communist who claimed that people avoided becoming Communists because the Bourgeosie elite used a system of Consciousness to manipulate them into thinking Communism was a bad thing.
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Kansas Republicans
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Many Democrats argue that poor white people of Kansas are also being manipulated through soft power, and that’s why they vote Republican.
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Restraint
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When a country tries to hold back so as to signal that they are not threatening.
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Kuwait War
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USA said they were attacking for limited goals; This demonstrates a certain amount of restraint out of Hegemon.
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Political transparency
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A Hegemon can allow other countries to see how a state makes decisions in an effort to show they are not threateneing. (International Organizations help demonstrate this).
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Sensitivity to Instability
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If a country has strong markets in an area, than they won’t want instability in those areas. This thought makes them less threatening.
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Bureaucratic Entrenchment
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If a country has a bureaucratic system that stops them from making any radical, unpredictable actions, than this Hegemon might not be seen as a threat. (America is full of Red Tape).
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International Institutions
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If a country joined an IO and seems like it would care about what other countries say, than they would be restrained, and thus would seem like less of a threat.
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Internal Institutions
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When within a country there are multiple decision-making bodies that have a veto. (Ex: in USA president, Senate, and sometimes House can veto legislation). A country with more veto points would be more restrained than one that has none.
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British-Australian Occupation
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When disputes arose between Australia and Britain, Britain showed some self restraint, and backed off. (This is partially why Australia stayed connected with the British).
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General Assembly
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A group where all members are represented and they vote on budgets and for specialized agencies.
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Security Council
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A section of the UN where powerful states have more sway because there are five permanent members in USA, China, France, Britain, and Russia with ten rotating members for two years each.
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Information Shortcuts
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Security Council provides countries with information, and this keeps domestic audiences that might have been left in the dark informed. (This helps show restraint by the Hegemon if all are seeing information).
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Freedom of Action Costs
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When a nation works through an international organization, they sacrifice the right to work in a completely unilateral way of doing exactly what they want to do.
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Influence Costs
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The losses that arise from individuals within an organization seeking to influence its decisions for their private benefit. (Policies must be slightly changed to get all individuals on board).
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Delay Costs
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When a nation works through an IO, they have to go through the long deliberations, and thus there is a great loss of time.
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Scrutiny Costs
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When a country works though an IO, they will be scrutinized greatly by people who are less supportive of the cause, and this is another cost.
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Third Party Reputation Costs
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Unilateral action can trigger negative responses from third party states including a loss of influence.
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Suez Canal Debacle
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Britain’s influence and authority was undermined when they tried to act unilaterally.
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Heterogeneous institution
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An institution that has many opinions represented. This group will most likely have states willing to reject the policies of the main state.
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Information Transmission
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During a war, battles occur that revel information about enemy’s capacity to fight a war, enemy’s willingness to fight. (If a country believes from this information that the other country is willing to fight a war, than it will make an ultimatum that B will be willing to accept).
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Alsace-Lorraine
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A section of land between Germany and France that jumped back and forth between the two. (This shows how treaties are not necessarily binding, but rather can be reversed).
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Extermination
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A type of total war in which the occupying country kills/enslaves the enemy.
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Occupation
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A type of total war where countries take over countries through military advances. (European colonialism; German occupation of northern France during WWII). A way of ensuring treaties were followed.
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Regime Change
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A type of total war where a country attacks, and establishes a new leader who is friendly to them. (USA in Germany, Japan…)
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Commitment Propositions
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The more a belligerent fears its adversary will violate war-ending commitments, the more likely that the belligerent will pursue absolute victory. (80% of civil wars end in complete destruction of one side).
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Post War Peace Keeping
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A technique at reducing commitment fears by which an outside enforcer steps in to guarantee the war ending agreement is kept.
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Strategic Goods****
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In an attempt at reducing commitment fears, one can seize a disputed good that may make future attack less attractive. (Fortress of Metz in Franco-Prussian War.)
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Fortress of Metz in Franco-Prussian War****
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Something that was seized, and this made future attack less attractive.
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Formal Peace Treaties
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Written and ratified documents.
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Informal Peac Treaties
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Verbal agreement.
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Political Peace Treaties
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Contract to cease hostilities and resolve political issues under dispute.
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Nonpolitical Peace Treaties
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Doesn’t solve issue; Just agrees to stop violence.
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Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction
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The idea that made peace treaties long-lasting in the Middle Ages, which was the belief that the Pope would damn you to hell if you broke a peace treaty.
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Hostages
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A technique at guaranteeing treaties, where if one broke treaty, the enemy could take goods of people living in the territory, or literally hostages to kill.
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Third Party Guarantee
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A way to guarantee treaties, where a third party would come and guarantee the terms of the treaty. (Truce between France and Portugal was enforced by third party, England in 1713).
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Nonrecognition
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Individual or joint refusal by states to recognize (admit the legality or legitimacy of) certain acts or situations. A new trend has started where treaties that give victor new territory were ignored.
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Japanese Invasion of China/Manchuria
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The treaty that gave Japan land of China was not accepted because it was taken by force, and this is outlawed. (Ex of Nonrecognition).
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Viena Convention on Treaties
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A convention where they decided that a treaty is void if its conclusion has been procured by the threat or use of force.
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Nonrecognition and Information
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If third party countries do not respect treaties based on force, weaker countries will not make concessions.
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Nonrecognition and Commitment
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If third party countries do not respect treaties based on force, stronger countries will fear that the weaker state will renege on such a peace treaty.
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Stimson Note
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The note that said that the USA would no longer respect treaties made after a country took another by force.
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National Interest
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A set of concrete material interests that must be pursued to protect American security and promote American Prosperity. (Defined by National Identity and National Power).
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Internal Identity
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The way in which a country perceives itself.
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External identity
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How states evaluate ethnic, ideological, and other sources of identity in their relations with other states.
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Hierarchy
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When there is an unequal distribution of power between two countries, but their identities converge. (Ex1: U.S. relations in NATO; Ex2: U.S-Japan security treaty).
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Hegemony
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When there is an unequal distribution of power between two countries, and their identities diverge. (Ex1: U.S. relations with nondemocratic nations such as Asia, Africa, M.E, and Latin America).
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Security Community
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When there is an equal distribution of power between two countries, and their identities converge. (Ex1: EU; Ex2: U.S. Relations in G-7).
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Democratic Peace
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What forms when there is a security community of two Democratic countries with no historical inclination to be offensive against each other.
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Holy Alliance
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What forms when there is a security community of two Non-democratic countries that have no historical inclination to be offensive against each other.
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Democratizing vs. Democratic States
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What forms when there is a security community of two Democratic countries that have a historical inclination to be offensive against each other.
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Alliance of Totalitarian States
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What forms when there is a security community of two non-democratic states that have an inclination to be offensive against each other.
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Double-Track Anarchy
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When there is an equal distribution of power between countries, but their identities diverge. (Ex1: U.S. relations with Russia and, in the future perhaps China).
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Neoisolationist or Nationalist America
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A group of people that favor few if any commitments abroad. They do not want American policy to get involved in European issues.
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Strategic Immunity
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The US is not just ideologically separate, but geographically as well. This is seen as an advantage for neoisolationists.
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Realist America
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This is a group that believes that the world is full of conflict, and is not self-balancing. They believe that great powers have to do the balancing themselves. Realists think that other countries will not try to balance the world, but rather to dominate, and thus they must counter them. (It is for this reason, that they say Democracies often cause problems by trying to punish enemies rather than balance them).
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Primacist America
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This is a group of people who think that countries should work to influence the goals that the balance of power serves, rather than to balance it. They think that it is important to try to push their values so as to tip the scale in their favor.
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Internationalist America
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This is a group of people who want multilateral internationalism in which institutions are the fundamental tool. This is a type of Wilsonianism since he was the original creator of the League of Nations.
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Odysseus and the Sirens
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A story from the epic about odysseus in which he wanted to hear the beautiful song of the sirens, but he wanted to make sure he did not get sucked into the eddies where they would die. (This represents the paradox in International Relations that sometimes giving up power is the most sensible way to gain power in the long run.
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Paradox of Power
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Sometimes the best way to hold on to power is to restrain oneself to avoid overstepping power.
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Realism/Realpolitik
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The idea that security is an end in itself, and the goal should be to preserve material position of the United States. Crass decisions to focus on our own interests. (Ex1: FDR thought Hitler and Stalin were both evil, but allied with S.U. to destroy bigger evil; Ex2: Although China and S.U. were communist, oppressive nations, Nixon made peace for security reasons).
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Kennan
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He was the American advisor and diplomat who thought the theory of realism was best because he thought that if a country acted like all other nations were evil, eventually a contumacy would be formed against it.
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Contumacy
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A confederation of forces against an aggressor. It forms if a country starts to intervene in the politics of all perceived evil nations.
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James Baker
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This was a major realist who wanted to liberate the Iraqis but thought that this would not be fitting USA interests, since he thought that restraint would be a more effective tool.
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Idealism
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The belief that USA foreign policy should be about more than security. (Kennedy wanted to spread liberty).
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Wilsonianism
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A certain type of Idealism, named after Woodrow Wilson because of his idealistic attempt to spread democracy, collective security, and liberty through the League of Nations.
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Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1928
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A treaty signed by president Coolidge, making war illegal. (62 countries signed on).
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Rollback
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The strategy used by Reagan which was the strategy for ideological grouping of the Soviets as evil, and the dismissal of Kennan’s main arguments. (“Evil Empire”).
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Neoconservatives
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Kennedyesque Democrats who jumped ship to the Republicans. They wanted to promote deeper goals. They wanted to invade Iraq, and stay to rebuild.
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Pragmatists (Realists)
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These were the people in Bush’s cabinet that wanted to preserve American security, and for this reason they did not want an attack on Iraq because it would be a blatent display of American power, and could create resentment or a contumacy.
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National Unilateralists
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These were people that wanted to preserve American power and reputation by invading Iraq simply to show whose boss
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Eleanor Ostrum
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Nobel Prize winner in economics. She spoke about collective action problem where people have common interest, but don't work together. She said although there are individual incentives to free-ride, OFTEN, groups of people create institutions where they can cooperate and benefit together.
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Article 52
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Section of the Vienna Convention that says that any annexation of land made out of force is void.
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Bretton Woods Convention
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Since USA had disproportional Interest and disproportional ability, they lead this convention where the GATT was created. This turned into the WTO. This advocated for free trade.
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Stinting
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In a commons, limiting each hersman to a fixed number of animals (Managed commons- Socialism).
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inter-industry trade
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When a country exports goods produced by one industry in exchange for goods produced by another industry in a second country.
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Intra-Industry Trade
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Countries import and export similar types of products.
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Static Gains
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Refers to one time benefits of reducing trade barriers that arise as national prices are closer to global prices.
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Licensing
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A common practice that allows the international transfer of technology
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Uruguay Round
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A conference to address the problems of GATT, and it wanted to introduce major reforms, and created the WTO.
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Terms of Trade Improvement
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When the price of a country's import good falls on the world market relative to the price of the goods it exports. This makes a country better off because it can buy imports at a relatively cheaper price on the world market.
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Trade Re-routing
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Goods are moved through third countries in order to circumvent high tariffs
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Trade Deflection Effect***
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Temporary tariffs that are diverted to countries with lower import tariffs.
NAFTA |
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Predatory Pricing
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Setting prices low in order to drive competitors out of business. (
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International Price Discrimination
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Charging different prices for a good in different countries because demand for the good is different in the different countires. (One can price below the average cost of production).
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Collusive Pricing
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A practice in wich several firms agree to simultaneously raise prices and keep them high.
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Intermediate Group
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An entity in which no single member has enough incentive to pay the entire cost, but the membership is small enough that one member with notice whether others are paying any of the costs.
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Economic Cooperation Act of 1948
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An act that promised to promote the building of a new Europe witha continental economy rather than merely national economies.
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Brusels treaty
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A treaty that emphasized that economic recovery was impossible without military security.
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Greater Middle East Initiative
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A program that intended to promote democracy and good governance. It provoked a decidedly negative reaction int he Arab world.
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Principled Nation
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A nation whose conduct is guided by certain ethical principles and whose word can be counted upon.
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Historical Amnesia
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If states believe that the US has hurt them in the past, they are likely to be suspicious of future behavior and prone to resent our power.
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Nationalists (China/Taiwan)
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Car primarily about the issue of Taiwanese sovereignty and secondarily about economic considerations.
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Protectionists (China/Taiwan)
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Care about economic issues but who are threatened by cross-strait economic integration, and thus want closed markets.
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Ad hoc Multilateralism
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Regional Organizations.
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Statecraft
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The exercise of power in which efforst to convince a target to take a certain course of action takes place through threats or action.
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Threatening Type of State
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A state that seeks more ambitious and aggressive goals that endanger third parties.
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Unthreatening Types of States
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A state that seeks defensive and limited aims that pose no risk beyond the target.
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Intentions Information
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Channeling coercion through an International Organization sends a signal of benign intentions to leaders of third party states.
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Flexibility
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When coercers place a ow alue on flexibility, they are more likely to turn on IOs.
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Anticipated Costs
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When Coercers anticipate high international political costs for taking action, they are more likely to turn to IOs.
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Forum Shopping
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When coercers place a low value on flexibility and anticipate high international political costs, they are more likely to turn to the security council.
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Coercer's Motiviation
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When powerful coercers work through IOs, they do so strategically to lower the international political costs of coercion.
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Operation Enduring Freedom
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Goal of overthrowing Taliban regime, destroying terrorist training camps, and capturing Al Qaeda operatives.
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Defensive Positionists
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A country that used force only for defensive purposes
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Revisionist/Agresssive States
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A state that seeks to maximize the difference between their gains and the gains of others so that they can expand and potentially dominate other states.
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Accomodationist State
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Consider the use of offensive force legitimate for certain purposes.
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"Rope-a-Dope" National Security Strategy
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Hang back and let other countries punch each other out, and than step in later. (In WWI and WWII, America did this).
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Military Overstretch
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When a Hegemon becomes involved in too many commitments and conflicts, so much so that another country surpasses it economically.
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Multicultural Democracy
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An idea of equal representation of diverse cultural groups.
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Pleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum
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An environmental problem related with oceanic and atmospheric changes, extinctino of numerous deep sea life, and a major turnover in mammalian life.
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Principles of Convergence
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Once expectations converge sufficiently, war can be terminated.
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Asymmetric Information
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When two countries have differing beliefs.
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Transitional War
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No Hegemon to keep everyone in line. (It is a period of transfer of power). An example is the Napoleonic War
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Dialectic
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Resolution.
"They passed a dialectic." |
