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966 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
asexual reproduction
Any reproductive mode by which offspring arise from and inherit genes from just one parent.
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid. Carries the primary hereditary information for all living organisms and many viruses.
Eukarya
Domain of eukaryotic cells; all protists, plants, fungi, and animals.
animal
Multicelled, motile heterotroph that has embryonic stages and usually tissues, organs, and organ systems
archaea
Evolutionarily distinct domain of prokaryotic organisms
atom
Fundamental form of matter that has mass and takes up space, and cannot be broken apart by everyday means.
bacteria
The most widespread and diverse group of prokaryotic organisms.
biosphere
All regions of the Earth’s waters, crust, and atmosphere where organisms live.
cell
Smallest living unit, with a capacity to survive and reproduce on its own.
classification system
A way of organizing and retrieving information about species.
community
All species living and interacting in some habitat.
control group
A group used as a standard for comparison with an experimental group.
ecosystem
An array of species and their physical environment.
energy
Capacity to do work.
experimental group
A group upon which an experiment is performed, and compared with a control group
fungus
fungi; Eukaryotic heterotroph that obtains nutrients by extracellular digestion and absorption; notable for prolific spore formation.
hypothesis
In science, a possible explanation of a phenomenon, one that has the potential to be proven false by experimental tests.
molecule
Two or more atoms of the same or different elements joined by chemical bonds.
mutation
Heritable change in DNA.
natural selection
Microevolutionary process; the outcome of differences in survival and reproduction among individuals that differ in the details of their heritable traits.
organ
Two or more tissues arrayed in a specific pattern and interacting in some task.
organ system
Two or more organs interacting chemically, physically, or both in a task.
plant
A multicelled photoautotroph with well-developed roots and shoots.
population
Group of individuals of the same species in a specified area.
prediction
Statement about what you expect to observe in nature.
protist
One of the mainly single-celled species of eukaryotes traditionally grouped in the catch-all “kingdom Protista.” Currently being classified into groupings that reflect evolutionary relationships.
scientific theory
An explanation of the cause of a range of related phenomena; has been rigorously tested but is still open to revision.
species
One kind of organism. Of species that reproduce sexually, one or more groups of natural populations in which individuals interbreed and are reproductively isolated from other such groups.
test, scientific
A means to determine the accuracy of a prediction, as by conducting experiments, making observations, or developing models.
tissue
Of multicelled organisms, a group of cells and intercellular substances that function together in one or more specialized tasks.
variable
A specific aspect of an object or event that may differ over time and among individuals. In an experimental test, a single variable is directly manipulated in an attempt to support or disprove a prediction.
ATP
Adenosine triphosphate. Nucleotide made of adenine, ribose, and three phosphate groups; main energy carrier in cells.
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid. Carries the primary hereditary information for all living organisms and many viruses.
RNA
Ribonucleic acid. Any of a class of single-stranded nucleic acids with roles in transcription, translation, and catalysis.
amino acid
Organic compound with an amino group (NH2), a carboxylic acid group (COOH), and a side group bonded covalently to the same carbon atom. Subunit of proteins.
antioxidant
Enzyme or cofactor that can help neutralize free radicals, which may otherwise damage DNA and other molecules of life.
archaea
Evolutionarily distinct domain of prokaryotic organisms.
cleavage
Early stage of animal development. Mitotic cell divisions divide a fertilized egg into many smaller, nucleated cells; original volume of egg cytoplasm does not increase.
coenzyme
Small molecule that participates in an enzymatic reaction, and is reversibly modified during the reaction (e.g., a vitamin).
compound
Molecule consisting of two or more elements in unvarying proportions.
condensation reaction
Covalent bonding of two molecules into a larger molecule, often with the formation of water as a by-product.
connective tissue
Most abundant, pervasive animal tissue. Specialized types are cartilage, bone tissue, adipose tissue, and blood.
denaturation
The three-dimensional shape of a protein or some other complex molecule unravels as its hydrogen bonds are disrupted.
disaccharide
A common oligosaccharide; two covalently bonded sugar monomers.
disease
Illness caused by an infectious, dietary, or environmental factor.
electron transfer chain
Array of membrane-bound enzymes and other molecules that accept and give up electrons in sequence; allows the release and capture of energy in small, useful increments.
energy
Capacity to do work.
enzyme
A type of protein (or, rarely, RNA) that accelerates a chemical reaction.
fat
Type of lipid with a glycerol head attached to one, two, or three fatty acid tails.
functional group
An atom or a group of atoms with characteristic properties that is covalently bonded to an organic compound’s carbon backbone.
hemoglobin
Respiratory protein in red blood cells; consists of four polypeptide chains and four heme groups.
hydrolysis
An enzymatic cleavage reaction in which a molecule is split, and the components of water (—OH and —H) become attached to each of the fragments.
induced-fit model
An enzyme changes shape to fit a bound substrate, and the resulting tension destabilizes the substrate’s bonds.
lipid
Nonpolar hydrocarbon; fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and sterols are lipids.
monosaccharide
One of the simple sugars (e.g., glucose) that are unit components of oligosaccharides or polysaccharides.
mutation
Heritable change in DNA.
nucleic acid
Single-stranded or double-stranded molecule composed of nucleotides joined at phosphate groups (e.g., DNA, RNA).
nucleotide
Small organic compound with a five-carbon sugar, a nitrogen-containing base, and a phosphate group.
organic compound
Molecule containing carbon and hydrogen; may also contain oxygen, nitrogen, and other elements.
polypeptide chain
Three or more amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
polysaccharide
Straight or branched chain of many covalently linked sugar units of the same or different kinds. Most common types are cellulose, starch, and glycogen.
protein
Organic compound consisting of one or more polypeptide chains folded and twisted into a three-dimensional shape.
sterol
Lipid with a rigid backbone of four fused carbon rings.
wax
A type of lipid with long-chain fatty acids attached to long-chain alcohols or carbon rings.
D) Polysaccharides
complex carbohydrates and consist of many monosaccharides
A. Monomers; Monosaccharides; ( simple sugars)
1) Chemical formula: C6H12O6
2) glucose: major fuel for cells
3) fructose: corn syrup
4) galactose : found in milk
B. Dissachrides (2 monosaccarides joined together by dehydration synthesis)
2 monosaccharides joined together by dehydration synthesis (condensation rxn)
examples:
1) lactose -galacose + glucose ( milk)
2) sucros-fructose + glucose ( table sugar)
3) maltose-glucose + glucose ( germinating seeds)
C. Artificial Sweetners
used for dieting
ex: sucralose ( modified sucrose) such as splena or nutrasweet)
1) Starch ( amylose)
glucose storage molecule for plants
2) Cellulose (fiber)
structural polymer for plants
(animals cannot hydrolize it)
3) Cellulose fibers are
tough, resistant to hydrolysis, and insoluble
4) glycogen
glucose storage for animals found in liver and muscles
5) chitin
structural polymer for invertebrate animals
ex: crabs for their shells
A. What is an organic compound?
molecules containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
B. 4 major macro molecules in the cell
1) carbohydrates
2) lipids
3) proteins
4) nucleic acids
C. Macromolecules consist of :
monomers
polymers
D. Condensation reaction
dehydration synthesis it :
joins monomers together and water is lost to the enviornment
E. Hydrolisis
rxn that breaks polymers and water is needed from the enviornment
A. lipids (all hydrophobic or water fearing)
1) triglyceride
2) phospholipids
3) waxes
4) steroids
1) monomers of triglyceride
glycerol+ fatty acids
2) polymers of triglyceride
glycerol + 3 fatty acids = triglyceride
3) unsaturated fats (good)
fatty acids are not packed as tightly ( double bonds ) (plants)
ex: vegetable oil liquid at room temp.
4) saturated fats (bad)
no double bonds and solid at room temperature ( animal fats )
ex: butter, lard
1) phosoplipids composed of
phosporous containing head +2 fatty acids
hydrophobic tails + hydrophillic heads = amphiphilic molecule
2) cell membranes contain a
phospholipid bi-layer with hydrophilic parts in aquesous enviornments ( outside and inside the cell)
and hydrophobic parts at the core
B. Phospolipids
major component of cell membranes for plants and animals
C. waxes
1 long fatty acid and alcohol group or carbon ring
extremely hydrophobic (more than fats )
1) monomer for steroids
four carbon rings ( no fatty acids)
2) hormones for steroids
estrogen and tetosterone
3) cholesterol
steroid essential for cell membranes and hormones, but too much is bad for our diet
a) bad cholestorol (LDL)
should be less than 13 omg /dl
excess leads to arterial plaques
b) good cholesterol ( HDL)
should be higher than 40mg/dl to help prevent heart disease
by carrying cholesterol from arteries.
c) triglycerides correlate with elevated LDL
should be less than 150
2) Polymers for DNA
polynucleotide - linking sugars and phosphates together to make sugar phosphate backbone
3) double helix structure
nitrogenous bases interacting via hydrogen bonds
a) A-T
b) G-C
1) nucleotides consist of :
monomers of DNA consisting of
deoxyribose -5 carbon sugar
phosphate group -negatively charged
nitrogenous base (ATCG)
1) monomers of RNA Nucleotides consiste of
ribose-sugar that has less oxygen ( 5 carbon sugar)
phosphate group
nitrogenous bases A, U, G, C
2) polymers of RNA
polynucleotides
3) RNA structure
single strand ( one poly nucleotide )
1) _ different amino acids and _ are essential and we rebuild the other _ within our body.
20
9
11
2) Amino acid's consist of :
amino group, carboxyl group, and unique "R" group
3) Amino acids have different
chemical properties
ex: hydrophobic, hydrophilic, negatively charged, positively charged, bulky, small
1) Peptide bond
Dipeptides (2 amino acids )joinded by condensation reaction bon d thta joins amino acids
2) Polypeptides (many amino acids)
covalent bonds formed by condensation to put amino acids together
1) primary structure
amino acid sequence held together by peptide bonds
2) secondary structure
a) coils alpha helices
b) folds ( beta pleated sheets)
c) held together by hydrogen bonds between different amino acids
3) tertiary structure
3D shape of he protein and is held together by unique interactions of
R groups of neighboring amino acids.
4) quantenary strucutre
two or more interacting polypeptides
ex: hemoglobin
- not all proteins have quantenary structure
Fibrous protiens consist mostly of :
alpha helices and are strong
ex: collegen
Globular proteins consist of
unique combination of both helices and beta pleated sheets
___ and ____ are linked.
structure
Unique ____ = unique _____
function
mutation in DNA
changes in heritable traits
1) prion ( proteins gone bad)
misfolded protein that is resistant to degradation
(usually in the brain)
2) how prions affect other proteins
can convert normal proteins into more prions
ex: mad cow disease
3) prions affect on host
cells clogged
neurologcal symptoms
death
4) Proteins have diverse functions
a) structural
b) contractile
c) storage
d) defensive
e) transport
f) signaling
g) enzymes
FAD
Flavin adenine dinucleotide. Nucleotide coenzyme; transfers electrons and unbound protons (H+) between reaction sites.
Krebs cycle
The second stage of aerobic respiration in which pyruvate is broken down to carbon dioxide and water. Two ATP form. Occurs only in mitochondria
NAD+
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide. A nucleotide coenzyme; abbreviated NADH when carrying electrons and H+.
aerobic respiration
Oxygen-dependent pathway of ATP formation in which glucose is broken down to carbon dioxide and water in several steps, including glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and electron transfer phosphorylation. Typical net yield: 36 ATP.
alcoholic fermentation
Anaerobic ATP-forming pathway. NADH transfers electrons to acetaldehyde, forming ethanol. Reactions start with pyruvate from glycolysis and regenerate NAD+. Net yield: 2 ATP.
antioxidant
Enzyme or cofactor that can help neutralize free radicals, which may otherwise damage DNA and other molecules of life.
electron transfer phosphorylation
Last stage of aerobic respiration; electrons flow through mitochondrial electron transfer chains, to O2. The flow sets up an electrochemical gradient that drives ATP formation.
free radical
Highly reactive molecule with at least one unpaired electron.
glycolysis
Breakdown of glucose to two pyruvate molecules. First stage of aerobic respiration and fermentation.
lactate fermentation
Anaerobic pathway of ATP formation. Pyruvate from glycolysis is converted to three-carbon lactate, and NAD+ is regenerated. Net energy yield: 2 ATP.
pyruvate
Three-carbon compound that forms as the end product of glycolysis.
1) All energy releasing pathways begin with the ___________ reactions which occur in the
glycolysis
________________ and produce 2 molecules of ________________.(3C each)
cytoplasm
pyruvate
2) __________ is the main energy-releasing pathway leading to ATP formation; it
aerobic respiration
occurs in the _____________
mitochondria
3) ___________ ( a.k.a anaerobic respiration) can relese small quantities of energy withouth
fermentation pathways
the use of ___________: they occur in the ___________
oxygen
cytoplasm
1) aerobic respiration yields ______ ATPs. (Per one molecule of glucose )
36
2)summary of aerobic respiration
C6H12O6 + 6O2 ———> 6CO2 + 6H2O +36 ATP
3) Three series of reactions are required for aerobic respiration
glycolysis
krebs cycle
electron transfer phosphorylation
1) glycolysis
the “splitting” of 1 glucose two pyruvates (3C); small amounts of ATP are generated.
1) Two ATP are required to each donate a phosphate group to ______________ which then splits to form ______________
glycolysis
2 molecules PGAL ( 3C)
2) Enzymes remove H+ protons and electrons from PGAL to ________ NAD+ to NADH ( which are used later in electron transfer)
reduce
3) Phosphate groups are then directly transferred from intermediates to ADP = ___________________ to produce ATP
substrate-level phosphrylation
a) location of the enzymes involved?
cytoplasm
1) The end products of glycolysis are for each glucose molecule degraded:
a) 2 ATP net gain
b) 2 pyruvates
c) 2NADH ( holding electrons for later )
2) The Krebs cycle
degrades pyruvate to _carbon dioxide (CO2); ATP is produced; and the electron shuttlers, NAD+and FAD, accept H+ and e- to be carried to the electron transfer chain.
1) Location of Kreb's cycle
inner compartment of mitochondria
1) One pyruvate enters the ____________, one carbon is is removed in the form of carbon dioxide CO2
mitochondria -facilitated diffusion
and the now two carbon fragment joines coenzyme A ------- to acetydCoA.
2) _____________ then joins a four carbon molecule oxaloacetate already present from a previous " turn " of the cycle.
AcetylcoA
There are 6 carbon rings in this new molecule
3) More rearrangemnts, yield H+ and e- which are transferred to both 1 NAD+to become 1 NADH and 1 FAD to become
1 FADH2
4) The 4 carbon molecule __________ forms again to pick up more acetylCoA
oxalocetate
1) The 6 carbon molecule is arranged: Two CO2 are released , __________________ are transferred to 2 NAD+ to become 2
2H+ (protons) + 4 e-s NADH ( holding electrons)
2) Phosphate groups are then directly transferred from intermediates to ADP=____________________________________ to produce 1ATP.
substrate level phosphrylation
3) More rearrangements, yield H+ and e- which are transferred to both 1 NAD+ to become NADH and 1 FAD to become
1 FADH2
4) The 4 carbon molecule oxaloacetate forms again to pick up more
acetylCoA
D) The end products for steps 1 and 2 comvined for each glucose molecule degraded
2 ATP, 8NADH, 2FADH2, 6CO2
(remember each glucose produces two pyruvates that go through these two steps)
1) electron transfer phoosphorylation
processes the H+ and electrons to generate high yields of ATP (big energy pay off); the final electron acceptor is oxygen.
1) Location of electron transfer phosphorylation
enzymes involved are embedded in inner membrane mitochondria
2) _____________ give up their electrons to electron transfer chains ( enzyme systems)
NADH and FADH
1) As electrons are passed from one transfer enzyme to the next, small amounts of energy.The enzymes use this energy to actively pump protons from inner compartment-
outer compartments
2) AN excess of H+ builds up in the outercompartment ( a.k.a intermembrane space) and the H+ then follows the concentration gradient bactk to the matrix by
facilitated diffusion
3) The H+ flow back to inner compartment through the transport proteins/ enzymes, known as ________ which causes a release in energy.
ATP synthase
This kinetic energy is used to power the reaction __________
ADP-P-ATP
C. What happens to the electrons which have been transferred over and over? The final electron acceptor is oxygen (the electrons originallycame from glucose)
H2O
the reduced oxygen joins with H+ to yield
1) electron transfere yields 2 ATPs ; Krebs yields 2 ATPs, for a grand total of ______ ATPs per glucose molecule
36
2) When energy is transferred from glucose to ATP in the presence of oxygen, the efficiency is about
40%
1) Anaerobic pathways operate when ________ is absent ( or limited)
oxygen
2) Efficiency is about ____ (compared to aerobic respiration=40%) in our muscles.
2%
Our muscles can only make 2 ATP per molecule of glucose this way.
3) Glycolysis is the first stage to yiled 2 ATP, 2 pyruvates, and 2 _______
NADH
4) In the absence of oxygen, the reduced electron shuttler used in glycolysis, _______, cannot donate its electrons to the electron transfer chain.
NADH
Fermentation is a way of regenerating more: NAD+
5) Who uses Anaerobic Pathways
strict anaerobes ( bacteria)
faculative anaerobes ( yeast)
muscle cells
1) 2 Pyruvate-
2 ethanol (2c) +2Co2+2NAD+glycolysis
2) Example organism that uses acloholic fermentation
yeast
1) 2 pyruvate--
2 lactate (3C) + NAD+-----glycolisis
2) Example organisms that use lactate fermentation
our muscles
bacteria (cheese making)
1) endergonic reaction
energy in products have more energy than the reactants
ex: photosynthesis
2) exergonic reactions
energy out products have less energy than the reactants
ex: cellular respiration
3) energy release in cells occurs:
in manny small conversion steps because cells capture energy through covalent bonds
in there molecules
1) function of ATP
spends cell energy during endergoinc reactions and makes a cells energy during
exergonic reactions
2) Structure of ATP
made up of adenine
ribose
3 phosphate groups
3) how ATP provides energy:
last phosphate is bound through an unstable covalent bond
when ATP is broken then you get ADP+P energy
4) ADP + P
ATP
1)oxidized
the donor molecule loses one or more electrons
2) reduced
acceptor milecule gains one or more electrons
A. Enzymes are
catalysts -they increase the rate of a reaction
B. Most enzymes are
proteins and a few are RNA
1) protease-
breaks down proteins
2) DNA polmerase-
makes DNA polymers
3) lactase-
breaks down lactose
1) how do enzymes increase the rate of a reation
they lower the energy of the activation barrier(Ea)
Ea-the amount of energy needed to stargt a reaction ( break bonds )
1) empty _____
enzyme
2) substrate binds to _______
enzyme at " active state"
3) substrate is brought to ____________ where bonds are at breaking point and the reaction
" transition state"
can easily run to completion
4) __________ forms
product ( s)
5) _______ released enzymes is unchanged and the process repeats again and again
product ( s)
1) competitive inhibitor
binds to active site.
-this allows less substrate to bind there and results in less product
2) Non-competitive ( allosteric) inhibitor
binds to a site other than the active site.
-This causes shape change in the active site and results in less product
3) feedback inhibition
when the product of a reactions is also the inhibitor
1) three factors affect enzyme driven reactions
temperature
salinity ( level of salt)
pH ( level of acidity)
* extreemes of these affect protein folding and as a result function of enzymes
1) Membrane structure
phopholipid bilayer
1) function of membranes
allows some substances to cross and others cannot
2) What can freely cross in a membrane?
oxygen
carbon dioxxide
some water molecules
other small non polar ( non-charged ) molecules
3) what crosses with help from transporter proteins in a membrane?
Glucose
large polar ( water soluble molecules) ions
ex: calcium, sodium, potassium
A. Passive transport is made up of three things
simple diffusion
osmosis
facilitated diffusion ( passive diffusion)
B. In passive transport the concentration gradient is
is from high to low
1) Simple diffusion-
particles spontaneously spread from areas of high concentration to low concentration
2) simple diffusion is made up of
concentration gradient-high concentration to low concentration
dynamic equilibrium-concentrationgradient is equal on both sides of membrane
3) example of simple diffusion
gas exchange with red blood cells ( RBCs)
1) osmosis (diffusion of water )-
membranes are semi permeable or selective
- Membranes are permeable to water but some molecules cannot cross.
-Our body continues to go through this process and eventually meets equilibrium.
2) hyptonic
low concentration of solutes
3) hypertonic
high concentration of solutes
4) isotonic
equal concentration solutes
1) how is facilitated diffusion different from simple diffusion
Uses transport proteins which create channels thru the hydrophobic core.
2) How is facilitated diffusion similar to simple diffusion?
it follows concentration gradient and no energy is required.
3) example of facilitated diffusion would be
Glucose transport
A. In active transport molecules move
against concentration gradient from low to high
B. Active Transportation requires
energy and transporter proteins sometimes called pumps
C. An example of active transport is
calcium pump
A. Bulk transport is made up of two processes
exoctyosis ( moving things out )
endocytosis( moving things in )
1) exoctyosis ( moving things out) -
a vesticle from inside cytoplasm fusing with plasma membrane
1) endoctyosis ( moving things in) is made up of three processes:
1) phagocytosis
2) pincoytosis
3) receptor ( mediated endoctosis)
2) phagocytosis ( cellular eating )
large molecules and large items ( i.e. bacteria )
3) pinocytosis ( cellular drinking)
taking in droplets of molecules solutions etc.
4) receptor ( mediated endocytosis)
highly specific, pit forms to bring in only one type of molecule in bulk.
ATP
Adenosine triphosphate. Nucleotide made of adenine, ribose, and three phosphate groups; main energy carrier in cells.
ATP synthase
Membrane-bound active transport protein that acts as an enzyme of ATP formation.
C3 plant
Plant that makes three-carbon PGA in the first step of carbon fixation.
C4 plant
Plant that makes four-carbon oxaloacetate in the first step of carbon fixation.
CAM plant
Plant that conserves water by opening stomata only at night, when it fixes carbon by repeated turns of the C4 pathway.
Calvin–Benson cycle
Light-independent cyclic reactions of photosynthesis. Forms sugars from CO2 using ATP and NADPH.
anthocyanin
Red to blue photosynthetic accessory pigment.
autotroph
An organism that makes its own food using an environmental energy source and carbon from carbon dioxide.
carotenoid
Red to yellow accessory pigment.
chlorophyll a
Primary photosynthetic pigment.
heterotroph
Organism unable to make its own organic compounds; feeds on autotrophs, other heterotrophs, or organic wastes.
light-dependent reactions
The first stage of photosynthesis. Sunlight energy is trapped and converted to chemical energy of ATP, NADPH, or both, depending on the pathway.
light-independent reactions
Second stage of photosynthesis in which sugars are formed from CO2 using ATP and NADPH. Also called the Calvin-Benson cycle.
photosynthesis
Process by which organisms use sunlight energy to convert carbon dioxide and water to sugars.
photosystem
In photosynthetic cells, a cluster of membrane-bound, light-trapping pigments and other molecules.
phycobilin
Red to blue photosynthetic accessory pigment.
pigment
Any light-absorbing molecule.
rubisco
RuBP carboxylase. Enzyme that catalyzes attachment of a carbon atom from carbon dioxide to RuBP and starts the C3 photosynthetic pathway.
stoma
stomata; A gap between two guard cells in leaf or stem epidermis; allows the diffusion of water vapor and gases across the epidermis.
thylakoid membrane
In plants, internal portion of a chloroplast’s membrane system, often folded into flattened sacs, that forms a single compartment. Pigments and enzymes are embedded in it; site of photosynthesis.
xanthophyll
Yellow-orange carotenoid. An accessory pigment.
1) three compartments of chloroplasts:
1) intermembrane space
2) stroma
3) thylakoid space
1) pigments
absorbs protons of light at particle wave length
2) Chlorophyll has two types
chlorophyll a
chlorophyll b
3) chlorophyll a
major pigment, directly participates in light reactions
4) chlorophyll b
accessory pigment antenna
1) various other accessory pigments
act as antenna for chorophyll a
1) accessory antennae molecules
help absorb light energy and transfer it to reaction center
2) Reaction center consists of :
a ) chlrophyll "a"
b) primary electron receptor
3) Photon
fixed quantity of light
1) Photosynthesis
6CO2 +6H2O +light energy-----C6H12O6 (glucose) 6O2 (oxygen)
2) Aerobic Respiration
C6H12O6 +6O2 -------------6CO2 +6H2O + 36 ATP
1) Photosynthesis
makes glucose
2) Aerobic repsiration
to make energy using glucose
1) Both Photosynthesis nad Aerobic respiration use
electron transfer chains and H+ gradients to generate ATP
2) Photosynthesis
light dependent in the thylakoid membrane and protons are pumped from one compartment to another through active transportpumped to the thylakoid.
They move back to the stroma throguh facilitated diffusion
3) Aerobic Respiration (3rd stage)
Enzymes are located in inner mitochondrial membrane using active transport.
THey move from inner to outer by facilitated diffusion and move back to the inner compartment
This is where they make ATP.
1) Photosynthesis use redox rxns and shuttler molecultes to
pass electrons to generate energy
2) photosynthesis uses redox reactions and shuttler molecules through
NADPH ( holding electrons) reduced
3) Aerobic respiration using redox reactions through
NADH and FADH
1) where does the hill reaction take place?
cholorplasts
thylakoid membrane
1) summary of hills reaction
ATP +NADPH-----light energy
atp=usuable cellular energy
1) light absorption and electron excitement in
Photosystem II
2) Series of redox reactions in an
Electron Transport Chain ( ETC)
3) Facilitated diffusion of H+ into
stroma
4) Transfer and reexcitement of electrons in
Photosystem I
5) A series of _____ reactions in in a electron transport chain ( ETC)
redox
6) Electron replacement for PS II:
electrons lost from PII are replaced with electrons from H2O that splits
1) Who uses photsynthesis? (photosynthetic autotrpohs "self feeders")
1) plants
2) bacteria ( some)
3) protists ( some) ex: seaweed
1) 6CO2+6H2O+light energy
C6H12O6 (glucose)
6O2 (oxygen)
(reverse of respiration)
a) location of calvin benson cycle ( light independent reactions )
chloroplasts-specifically the stroma
b) summary of Calvin Benson Cycle
CO2 + ATP +NADPH---glucose ---ADP+NADP
c) Carbon fixation-
enzyme rubisco joins 6 CO2 with 6 RuBP ( 5c) --------12 PGAL
d) what happens to the phophoglycerate ( PGA)?
Series of reactions requiring phosphate from ATP and electrons from NADPH---12PGAL
e) cost of one glucose -(six turns of the cycle)
6CO2 +18ATP + NADPH---glucose
ATP
Adenosine triphosphate. Nucleotide made of adenine, ribose, and three phosphate groups; main energy carrier in cells.
Golgi body
Organelle of endomembrane system; final modification of polypeptide chains into proteins, lipid assembly, and packaging of both in vesicles for secretion or for use inside cell.
archaea
Evolutionarily distinct domain of prokaryotic organisms.
bacteria
The most widespread and diverse group of prokaryotic organisms.
basal body
An organelle that gives rise to cilia or flagella; resembles a centriole.
cell
Smallest living unit, with a capacity to survive and reproduce on its own.
cell cortex
Three-dimensional mesh of actin filaments and other proteins just under the plasma membrane.
cell theory
Idea that all organisms consist of similar units of organization called cells.
cell wall
A semirigid, permeable structure encloses the plasma membrane of many cells; helps cell retain its shape and resist rupturing.
central vacuole
Fluid-filled storage organelle of a plant cell.
cytoplasm
All cell parts, particles, and semifluid substances between the plasma membrane and the nucleus (or nucleoid).
endoplasmic reticulum
ER. Organelle that starts at the nuclear envelope and extends through cytoplasm. Smooth ER assembles membrane lipids, breaks down fatty acids, and inactivates some toxins; Rough ER (has ribosomes on its cytoplasmic side) modifies new polypeptide chains.
fluid mosaic model
A cell membrane is fluid because of the motions and interactions of its component lipids and proteins.
lipid bilayer
Mainly phospholipids arranged tail-to-tail in two layers; structural basis of all cell membranes.
microfilament
Cytoskeletal element; consists of actin subunits. Involved in movement and structural integrity of cells.
microtubule
Cytoskeletal element; consists of tubulin subunits. Contributes to cell shape, growth, and motion; constituent of spindles
mitochondrion
mitochondria; Organelle of ATP formation; site of aerobic respiration’s second and third stages.
motor protein
Protein that associates with microtubules or microfilaments and has a role in cell movement.
nuclear envelope
Lipid bilayer membrane enclosing the nucleus of eukaryotes.
nucleus
Organelle that physically separates DNA from the cytoplasm in a eukaryotic cell.
organelle
Membrane-bound compartment in the eukaryotic cytoplasm; has one or more specialized metabolic functions.
osmotic pressure
Hydrostatic pressure that counters inward diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane inside a cell or enclosed body region.
phospholipid
Lipid with a phosphate group. Major constituent of biological membranes.
plasma membrane
Outermost cell membrane; structural and functional boundary between the cytoplasm and fluid surrounding the cell.
polypeptide chain
Three or more amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
ribosome
Structure upon which polypeptide chains are built. An intact ribosome consists of two subunits of rRNA and proteins.
surface-to-volume ratio
Physical relationship in which volume increases with the cube of the diameter, but surface area increases with the square; constrains increases in cell size.
wavelength
A wavelike form of energy in motion. The horizontal distance between the crests of every two successive waves.
intermediate filament
Cytoskeletal element; mechanically strengthens some animal cells.
chloroplast
Organelle of photosynthesis in plants and many protists.
nucleoid
Of bacterial cells, the region in which DNA is physically organized; not separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane.
aerobic respiration
Oxygen-dependent pathway of ATP formation in which glucose is broken down to carbon dioxide and water in several steps, including glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and electron transfer phosphorylation. Typical net yield: 36 ATP.
hydrostatic pressure
Pressure exerted by a volume of fluid against a wall, membrane, or some other structure that encloses it.
ATP
Adenosine triphosphate. Nucleotide made of adenine, ribose, and three phosphate groups; main energy carrier in cells.
ATP/ADP cycle
Alternating formation of ATP and ADP through phosphate group transfers.
activation energy
Minimum amount of energy required to start a reaction; enzyme action lowers this energy barrier.
active transport
Pumping of a specific solute across a membrane against its concentration gradient, through a transport protein’s interior. Requires energy input.
calcium pump
Membrane-bound active transport protein specific for calcium ions.
cell junction
A site where adjoining cells interact physically, chemically, or both.
chemical equilibrium
The state at which the concentrations of reactants and products in a reversible chemical reaction remain constant.
cilium
cilia; In some eukaryotic cells, a short motile structure or sensory structure.
concentration gradient
A difference in the number of molecules (or ions) of a substance between two adjoining regions.
diffusion
Net movement of like molecules or ions down their concentration gradient.
electron transfer chain
Array of membrane-bound enzymes and other molecules that accept and give up electrons in sequence; allows the release and capture of energy in small, useful increments.
endocytosis
Cellular uptake of a substance; plasma membrane forms a vesicle around it.
energy
Capacity to do work.
enzyme
A type of protein (or, rarely, RNA) that accelerates a chemical reaction.
exocytosis
Release of a vesicle’s contents outside the cell surface when it fuses with and becomes part of the plasma membrane.
feedback inhibition
Of cells, an activity causes a change in cellular conditions, and that change in turn causes the activity to slow down or stop.
first law of thermodynamics
The total amount of energy in the universe is constant; energy can be converted from one form to another, but cannot be created or destroyed.
fluid mosaic model
A cell membrane is fluid because of the motions and interactions of its component lipids and proteins.
hydrostatic pressure
Pressure exerted by a volume of fluid against a wall, membrane, or some other structure that encloses it.
induced-fit model
An enzyme changes shape to fit a bound substrate, and the resulting tension destabilizes the substrate’s bonds.
lipid bilayer
Mainly phospholipids arranged tail-to-tail in two layers; structural basis of all cell membranes.
lysosome
Organelle of intracellular digestion
metabolic pathway
Sequence of enzyme-mediated reactions by which cells assemble and build or break down organic compounds.
metabolism
All the controlled, enzyme-mediated chemical reactions by which cells acquire and use energy to synthesize, store, degrade, and eliminate substances.
osmosis
Diffusion of water between two regions separated by a selectively permeable membrane.
osmotic pressure
Hydrostatic pressure that counters inward diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane inside a cell or enclosed body region.
oxidation–reduction reaction
Transfer of electrons between reactant molecules.
passive transport
Diffusion of a solute across a cell membrane, through a transport protein.
peroxisome
Enzyme-filled vesicle that breaks down amino acids and fatty acids to hydrogen peroxide, which is converted to harmless products.
phospholipid
Lipid with a phosphate group. Major constituent of biological membranes.
phosphorylation
Enzyme-mediated transfer of a phosphate group between molecules.
photosynthesis
Process by which organisms use sunlight energy to convert carbon dioxide and water to sugars.
pressure gradient
Difference in pressure being exerted in two adjoining regions.
second law of thermodynamics
A law of nature stating that the spontaneous direction of energy flow is from organized forms to less organized forms; with each conversion, some energy is randomly dispersed in a form (usually heat) not as useful for doing work.
selective permeability
Built-in capacity of a cell membrane to stop some substances from crossing, and to allow others to cross it, at certain times, in certain amounts.
solute
Any substance dissolved in a solution.
substrate-level phosphorylation
The direct, enzyme-mediated transfer of a phosphate group from a substrate to another molecule.
1) chromatin
all the cells linear chromosomes and their asosciated proteins
2) nuclear envelope
two phospholipid bilayers with nuclear pores
-it seperates the chromatin from cytoplasm.
3) Nucleolus
ribosome factory where ribosomes are made.
4) ribosomes
made up of RNA and proteins, functions in cytoplasm
which can be free or attached to rough ER and link amino acids together.
they are not enclosed in the membrane
1) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
a) Structure -stacked, flattened sacs and types studded with ribosomes. Membrane continuous with nuclear envelope
b) Function-folding of proteins that will be secreted from the cell
2) Smooth ER
a. structure -noribosomes continuous with Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
b. function-synthesize lipids, detoxification, add to proteins from RER, making hormones, making new membranes
3) Golgi Bodies
a) structure-flattened sacs, not continuous with ER
b) function-shipping and recieving proteins from ER modify secretory proteins ( chemiscal)
4) Lysosomes
a) structure-membrane enclose vesicle buds from Golgi stays inside the cell
b) function-contains enzymes to digest various macromolecules, old organelles, and foreign matter
5) Central vacuole ( plants)
a) structure-1 very large vesicle
b) function-storage of ions, amino acids, sugars, water
A) endomembrane system
internal membrane system
B) Endomembrane system is composed of :
1)Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum ( RER)
2) Smooth ER
3)Golgi Bodies
4)Lysosomes
5)Central Vacuole
1) Mitochondria definition
cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells
2) Mitochondria function
transfer the energy in carbohydrates to cellular energy (ATP) only in the presence of oxyggen
3) Mitochondria Structure
inner highly folded and outer bilayer membranes
4. Compartments or spaces ( intermembrane space)
between outer and inner membrane ( outer compartment)
inside inner membrane matrix ( inner compartment )
2) Chloroplasts structure-
three phosoplipid bilayer membranes
outer
inner
mulakoid
3)Chloroplasts Compartments or spaces
outer compartment ( intermembrane)
inner -stroma thick fluid
thykaloid space
1) chloroplasts function
trap sunlight with photosynthetic pigments to make carbohydrates
1) microtubules structure
long, hollow cylinders made up of rubulin ( protein)
2) Microtubules function
tracks for movement of chromosomes and organelles
3) Microtubules assemble / dissassemble
yes they do
1) microfilaments structure
2 coiled chains of actin
2) microfilaments function
general cell movement, involved in cytokinesis cell pinching during division of cells
3) microfilaments assemble/ disassemble
yes they do
1) intermediate filaments structure
ropelike, made of various fibrous proteins
2) Intermediate filaments function
support for tension
3) Intermediate Filaments assemble / disassemble
no they don't
1) flagella (long and cilia ( short ) have the same structure in cross-section
9 doublets and 2 microtubules
2) flagella and cillia are anchored into the cytoplasm at what is called a ______
basal body
3) THe structure of the basal body in cross section is
9 triplets
4) Energy is used by a " motor protein called ______ which walks along the neighboring
dynein
microtubules so that they slide past each other in a whipping motion
1) pseudopods temporary lobes that project from the cell, used in
cell locomotion ( amoeba)
1. _________ such as prokaryotic flagella for rapid
Surface projections
movement or pilli which aid in attachment to surfaces
2. ___________ consists of sticky polysaccharides that help cells attach to surfaces.
Capsule
3. _________ rigid support for the cell, helps regulate transport in / out of cell.
Cell wall
4. _______ consists of lipid bi-layer; regulates transport in out of cell
plasma membrane
5. ________ protein factories in the cytoplasm
Ribosomes
6. _______ single, circular DNA molecule in cytoplasm
Nucleoid Region
1) two domains of prokaryotes exist
1) eubacteria -true bacteria
2) archaea-ancient bacteria
2) archaea have some eukaric properties but not quite eukaryotes
a. extreme halopholes -salt lovers that live in high salt enviornments
b. extreme thermophiles -heat lovers and live in high heat environments
c. Methanogens live in enviornments with low oxygen and release methane
1) Cells
the smalles unit that breaks and builds macromolecules
respond to environment, grow and reproduce.
2) All cells have three features in common
-plasma membrane -seperates cell from the environment; regulates molecule transport in and out of cell
-hereditary material (DNA)
-Cytoplasm-a water based semi fluid which contains organelles ( little organs) and fibers
3) There are basiaclly two kinds of cells in nature:
1-prokaryotic - no defined nucleus
2- eukaryotic-have a nucleus
Cell size is constrained by
surface area nad volume ratio
1. All organisms are composed of
one or more cells
2. The cell is the smalles unit having
properties of life
3. The continuity of life arises directly from
the growth and division of single cells
1. Phospholipid bilaryer
hydrophobic core and hydrophic heads
2. THe _________describes a cell membrane of mixed composition.
Fluid Mosaic Model
3. Proteins interspersed in the lipid bilaryer serve many functions
adhesion -stick to surface
communication - talk with neighboring cells
transport enzymes -things moving in and out of cell
receptors-way of recieving signals from the enviornment
anaphase
Of mitosis, stage when sister chromatids of each chromosome move to opposite spindle poles. During anaphase I (meiosis), each duplicated chromosome and its homologue move to opposite poles. During anaphase II, sister chromatids of each chromosome move to opposite poles.
bipolar mitotic spindle
Dynamic array of microtubules that moves chromosomes in precise directions during mitosis or meiosis.
cancer
Malignant neoplasm; mass of cells that divide abnormally and can spread in the body.
cell cycle
Series of events from one cell division to the next. Interphase, mitosis, and cytoplasmic division constitute one cycle.