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966 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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asexual reproduction
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Any reproductive mode by which offspring arise from and inherit genes from just one parent.
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DNA
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Deoxyribonucleic acid. Carries the primary hereditary information for all living organisms and many viruses.
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Eukarya
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Domain of eukaryotic cells; all protists, plants, fungi, and animals.
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animal
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Multicelled, motile heterotroph that has embryonic stages and usually tissues, organs, and organ systems
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archaea
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Evolutionarily distinct domain of prokaryotic organisms
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atom
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Fundamental form of matter that has mass and takes up space, and cannot be broken apart by everyday means.
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bacteria
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The most widespread and diverse group of prokaryotic organisms.
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biosphere
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All regions of the Earth’s waters, crust, and atmosphere where organisms live.
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cell
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Smallest living unit, with a capacity to survive and reproduce on its own.
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classification system
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A way of organizing and retrieving information about species.
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community
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All species living and interacting in some habitat.
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control group
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A group used as a standard for comparison with an experimental group.
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ecosystem
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An array of species and their physical environment.
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energy
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Capacity to do work.
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experimental group
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A group upon which an experiment is performed, and compared with a control group
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fungus
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fungi; Eukaryotic heterotroph that obtains nutrients by extracellular digestion and absorption; notable for prolific spore formation.
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hypothesis
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In science, a possible explanation of a phenomenon, one that has the potential to be proven false by experimental tests.
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molecule
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Two or more atoms of the same or different elements joined by chemical bonds.
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mutation
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Heritable change in DNA.
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natural selection
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Microevolutionary process; the outcome of differences in survival and reproduction among individuals that differ in the details of their heritable traits.
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organ
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Two or more tissues arrayed in a specific pattern and interacting in some task.
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organ system
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Two or more organs interacting chemically, physically, or both in a task.
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plant
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A multicelled photoautotroph with well-developed roots and shoots.
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population
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Group of individuals of the same species in a specified area.
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prediction
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Statement about what you expect to observe in nature.
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protist
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One of the mainly single-celled species of eukaryotes traditionally grouped in the catch-all “kingdom Protista.” Currently being classified into groupings that reflect evolutionary relationships.
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scientific theory
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An explanation of the cause of a range of related phenomena; has been rigorously tested but is still open to revision.
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species
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One kind of organism. Of species that reproduce sexually, one or more groups of natural populations in which individuals interbreed and are reproductively isolated from other such groups.
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test, scientific
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A means to determine the accuracy of a prediction, as by conducting experiments, making observations, or developing models.
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tissue
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Of multicelled organisms, a group of cells and intercellular substances that function together in one or more specialized tasks.
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variable
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A specific aspect of an object or event that may differ over time and among individuals. In an experimental test, a single variable is directly manipulated in an attempt to support or disprove a prediction.
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ATP
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Adenosine triphosphate. Nucleotide made of adenine, ribose, and three phosphate groups; main energy carrier in cells.
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DNA
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Deoxyribonucleic acid. Carries the primary hereditary information for all living organisms and many viruses.
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RNA
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Ribonucleic acid. Any of a class of single-stranded nucleic acids with roles in transcription, translation, and catalysis.
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amino acid
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Organic compound with an amino group (NH2), a carboxylic acid group (COOH), and a side group bonded covalently to the same carbon atom. Subunit of proteins.
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antioxidant
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Enzyme or cofactor that can help neutralize free radicals, which may otherwise damage DNA and other molecules of life.
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archaea
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Evolutionarily distinct domain of prokaryotic organisms.
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cleavage
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Early stage of animal development. Mitotic cell divisions divide a fertilized egg into many smaller, nucleated cells; original volume of egg cytoplasm does not increase.
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coenzyme
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Small molecule that participates in an enzymatic reaction, and is reversibly modified during the reaction (e.g., a vitamin).
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compound
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Molecule consisting of two or more elements in unvarying proportions.
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condensation reaction
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Covalent bonding of two molecules into a larger molecule, often with the formation of water as a by-product.
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connective tissue
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Most abundant, pervasive animal tissue. Specialized types are cartilage, bone tissue, adipose tissue, and blood.
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denaturation
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The three-dimensional shape of a protein or some other complex molecule unravels as its hydrogen bonds are disrupted.
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disaccharide
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A common oligosaccharide; two covalently bonded sugar monomers.
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disease
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Illness caused by an infectious, dietary, or environmental factor.
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electron transfer chain
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Array of membrane-bound enzymes and other molecules that accept and give up electrons in sequence; allows the release and capture of energy in small, useful increments.
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energy
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Capacity to do work.
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enzyme
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A type of protein (or, rarely, RNA) that accelerates a chemical reaction.
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fat
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Type of lipid with a glycerol head attached to one, two, or three fatty acid tails.
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functional group
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An atom or a group of atoms with characteristic properties that is covalently bonded to an organic compound’s carbon backbone.
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hemoglobin
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Respiratory protein in red blood cells; consists of four polypeptide chains and four heme groups.
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hydrolysis
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An enzymatic cleavage reaction in which a molecule is split, and the components of water (—OH and —H) become attached to each of the fragments.
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induced-fit model
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An enzyme changes shape to fit a bound substrate, and the resulting tension destabilizes the substrate’s bonds.
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lipid
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Nonpolar hydrocarbon; fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and sterols are lipids.
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monosaccharide
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One of the simple sugars (e.g., glucose) that are unit components of oligosaccharides or polysaccharides.
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mutation
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Heritable change in DNA.
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nucleic acid
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Single-stranded or double-stranded molecule composed of nucleotides joined at phosphate groups (e.g., DNA, RNA).
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nucleotide
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Small organic compound with a five-carbon sugar, a nitrogen-containing base, and a phosphate group.
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organic compound
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Molecule containing carbon and hydrogen; may also contain oxygen, nitrogen, and other elements.
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polypeptide chain
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Three or more amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
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polysaccharide
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Straight or branched chain of many covalently linked sugar units of the same or different kinds. Most common types are cellulose, starch, and glycogen.
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protein
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Organic compound consisting of one or more polypeptide chains folded and twisted into a three-dimensional shape.
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sterol
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Lipid with a rigid backbone of four fused carbon rings.
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wax
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A type of lipid with long-chain fatty acids attached to long-chain alcohols or carbon rings.
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D) Polysaccharides
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complex carbohydrates and consist of many monosaccharides
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A. Monomers; Monosaccharides; ( simple sugars)
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1) Chemical formula: C6H12O6
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2) glucose: major fuel for cells
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3) fructose: corn syrup
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4) galactose : found in milk
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B. Dissachrides (2 monosaccarides joined together by dehydration synthesis)
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2 monosaccharides joined together by dehydration synthesis (condensation rxn)
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examples:
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1) lactose -galacose + glucose ( milk)
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2) sucros-fructose + glucose ( table sugar)
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3) maltose-glucose + glucose ( germinating seeds)
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C. Artificial Sweetners
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used for dieting
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ex: sucralose ( modified sucrose) such as splena or nutrasweet)
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1) Starch ( amylose)
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glucose storage molecule for plants
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2) Cellulose (fiber)
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structural polymer for plants
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(animals cannot hydrolize it)
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3) Cellulose fibers are
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tough, resistant to hydrolysis, and insoluble
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4) glycogen
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glucose storage for animals found in liver and muscles
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5) chitin
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structural polymer for invertebrate animals
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ex: crabs for their shells
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A. What is an organic compound?
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molecules containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
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B. 4 major macro molecules in the cell
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1) carbohydrates
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2) lipids
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3) proteins
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4) nucleic acids
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C. Macromolecules consist of :
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monomers
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polymers
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D. Condensation reaction
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dehydration synthesis it :
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joins monomers together and water is lost to the enviornment
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E. Hydrolisis
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rxn that breaks polymers and water is needed from the enviornment
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A. lipids (all hydrophobic or water fearing)
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1) triglyceride
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2) phospholipids
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3) waxes
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4) steroids
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1) monomers of triglyceride
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glycerol+ fatty acids
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2) polymers of triglyceride
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glycerol + 3 fatty acids = triglyceride
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3) unsaturated fats (good)
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fatty acids are not packed as tightly ( double bonds ) (plants)
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ex: vegetable oil liquid at room temp.
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4) saturated fats (bad)
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no double bonds and solid at room temperature ( animal fats )
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ex: butter, lard
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1) phosoplipids composed of
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phosporous containing head +2 fatty acids
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hydrophobic tails + hydrophillic heads = amphiphilic molecule
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2) cell membranes contain a
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phospholipid bi-layer with hydrophilic parts in aquesous enviornments ( outside and inside the cell)
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and hydrophobic parts at the core
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B. Phospolipids
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major component of cell membranes for plants and animals
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C. waxes
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1 long fatty acid and alcohol group or carbon ring
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extremely hydrophobic (more than fats )
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1) monomer for steroids
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four carbon rings ( no fatty acids)
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2) hormones for steroids
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estrogen and tetosterone
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3) cholesterol
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steroid essential for cell membranes and hormones, but too much is bad for our diet
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a) bad cholestorol (LDL)
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should be less than 13 omg /dl
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excess leads to arterial plaques
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b) good cholesterol ( HDL)
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should be higher than 40mg/dl to help prevent heart disease
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by carrying cholesterol from arteries.
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c) triglycerides correlate with elevated LDL
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should be less than 150
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2) Polymers for DNA
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polynucleotide - linking sugars and phosphates together to make sugar phosphate backbone
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3) double helix structure
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nitrogenous bases interacting via hydrogen bonds
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a) A-T
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b) G-C
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1) nucleotides consist of :
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monomers of DNA consisting of
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deoxyribose -5 carbon sugar
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phosphate group -negatively charged
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nitrogenous base (ATCG)
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1) monomers of RNA Nucleotides consiste of
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ribose-sugar that has less oxygen ( 5 carbon sugar)
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phosphate group
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nitrogenous bases A, U, G, C
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2) polymers of RNA
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polynucleotides
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3) RNA structure
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single strand ( one poly nucleotide )
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1) _ different amino acids and _ are essential and we rebuild the other _ within our body.
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20
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9
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11
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2) Amino acid's consist of :
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amino group, carboxyl group, and unique "R" group
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3) Amino acids have different
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chemical properties
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ex: hydrophobic, hydrophilic, negatively charged, positively charged, bulky, small
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1) Peptide bond
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Dipeptides (2 amino acids )joinded by condensation reaction bon d thta joins amino acids
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2) Polypeptides (many amino acids)
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covalent bonds formed by condensation to put amino acids together
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1) primary structure
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amino acid sequence held together by peptide bonds
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2) secondary structure
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a) coils alpha helices
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b) folds ( beta pleated sheets)
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c) held together by hydrogen bonds between different amino acids
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3) tertiary structure
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3D shape of he protein and is held together by unique interactions of
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R groups of neighboring amino acids.
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4) quantenary strucutre
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two or more interacting polypeptides
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ex: hemoglobin
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- not all proteins have quantenary structure
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Fibrous protiens consist mostly of :
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alpha helices and are strong
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ex: collegen
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Globular proteins consist of
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unique combination of both helices and beta pleated sheets
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___ and ____ are linked.
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structure
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Unique ____ = unique _____
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function
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mutation in DNA
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changes in heritable traits
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1) prion ( proteins gone bad)
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misfolded protein that is resistant to degradation
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(usually in the brain)
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2) how prions affect other proteins
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can convert normal proteins into more prions
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ex: mad cow disease
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3) prions affect on host
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cells clogged
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neurologcal symptoms
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death
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4) Proteins have diverse functions
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a) structural
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b) contractile
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c) storage
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d) defensive
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e) transport
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f) signaling
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g) enzymes
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FAD
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Flavin adenine dinucleotide. Nucleotide coenzyme; transfers electrons and unbound protons (H+) between reaction sites.
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Krebs cycle
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The second stage of aerobic respiration in which pyruvate is broken down to carbon dioxide and water. Two ATP form. Occurs only in mitochondria
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NAD+
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Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide. A nucleotide coenzyme; abbreviated NADH when carrying electrons and H+.
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aerobic respiration
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Oxygen-dependent pathway of ATP formation in which glucose is broken down to carbon dioxide and water in several steps, including glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and electron transfer phosphorylation. Typical net yield: 36 ATP.
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alcoholic fermentation
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Anaerobic ATP-forming pathway. NADH transfers electrons to acetaldehyde, forming ethanol. Reactions start with pyruvate from glycolysis and regenerate NAD+. Net yield: 2 ATP.
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antioxidant
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Enzyme or cofactor that can help neutralize free radicals, which may otherwise damage DNA and other molecules of life.
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electron transfer phosphorylation
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Last stage of aerobic respiration; electrons flow through mitochondrial electron transfer chains, to O2. The flow sets up an electrochemical gradient that drives ATP formation.
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free radical
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Highly reactive molecule with at least one unpaired electron.
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glycolysis
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Breakdown of glucose to two pyruvate molecules. First stage of aerobic respiration and fermentation.
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lactate fermentation
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Anaerobic pathway of ATP formation. Pyruvate from glycolysis is converted to three-carbon lactate, and NAD+ is regenerated. Net energy yield: 2 ATP.
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pyruvate
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Three-carbon compound that forms as the end product of glycolysis.
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1) All energy releasing pathways begin with the ___________ reactions which occur in the
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glycolysis
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________________ and produce 2 molecules of ________________.(3C each)
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cytoplasm
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pyruvate
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2) __________ is the main energy-releasing pathway leading to ATP formation; it
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aerobic respiration
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occurs in the _____________
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mitochondria
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3) ___________ ( a.k.a anaerobic respiration) can relese small quantities of energy withouth
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fermentation pathways
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the use of ___________: they occur in the ___________
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oxygen
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cytoplasm
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1) aerobic respiration yields ______ ATPs. (Per one molecule of glucose )
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36
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2)summary of aerobic respiration
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C6H12O6 + 6O2 ———> 6CO2 + 6H2O +36 ATP
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3) Three series of reactions are required for aerobic respiration
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glycolysis
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krebs cycle
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electron transfer phosphorylation
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1) glycolysis
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the “splitting” of 1 glucose two pyruvates (3C); small amounts of ATP are generated.
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1) Two ATP are required to each donate a phosphate group to ______________ which then splits to form ______________
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glycolysis
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2 molecules PGAL ( 3C)
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2) Enzymes remove H+ protons and electrons from PGAL to ________ NAD+ to NADH ( which are used later in electron transfer)
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reduce
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3) Phosphate groups are then directly transferred from intermediates to ADP = ___________________ to produce ATP
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substrate-level phosphrylation
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a) location of the enzymes involved?
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cytoplasm
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1) The end products of glycolysis are for each glucose molecule degraded:
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a) 2 ATP net gain
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b) 2 pyruvates
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c) 2NADH ( holding electrons for later )
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2) The Krebs cycle
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degrades pyruvate to _carbon dioxide (CO2); ATP is produced; and the electron shuttlers, NAD+and FAD, accept H+ and e- to be carried to the electron transfer chain.
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1) Location of Kreb's cycle
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inner compartment of mitochondria
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1) One pyruvate enters the ____________, one carbon is is removed in the form of carbon dioxide CO2
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mitochondria -facilitated diffusion
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and the now two carbon fragment joines coenzyme A ------- to acetydCoA.
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2) _____________ then joins a four carbon molecule oxaloacetate already present from a previous " turn " of the cycle.
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AcetylcoA
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There are 6 carbon rings in this new molecule
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3) More rearrangemnts, yield H+ and e- which are transferred to both 1 NAD+to become 1 NADH and 1 FAD to become
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1 FADH2
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4) The 4 carbon molecule __________ forms again to pick up more acetylCoA
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oxalocetate
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1) The 6 carbon molecule is arranged: Two CO2 are released , __________________ are transferred to 2 NAD+ to become 2
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2H+ (protons) + 4 e-s NADH ( holding electrons)
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2) Phosphate groups are then directly transferred from intermediates to ADP=____________________________________ to produce 1ATP.
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substrate level phosphrylation
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3) More rearrangements, yield H+ and e- which are transferred to both 1 NAD+ to become NADH and 1 FAD to become
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1 FADH2
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4) The 4 carbon molecule oxaloacetate forms again to pick up more
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acetylCoA
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D) The end products for steps 1 and 2 comvined for each glucose molecule degraded
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2 ATP, 8NADH, 2FADH2, 6CO2
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(remember each glucose produces two pyruvates that go through these two steps)
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1) electron transfer phoosphorylation
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processes the H+ and electrons to generate high yields of ATP (big energy pay off); the final electron acceptor is oxygen.
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1) Location of electron transfer phosphorylation
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enzymes involved are embedded in inner membrane mitochondria
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2) _____________ give up their electrons to electron transfer chains ( enzyme systems)
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NADH and FADH
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1) As electrons are passed from one transfer enzyme to the next, small amounts of energy.The enzymes use this energy to actively pump protons from inner compartment-
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outer compartments
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2) AN excess of H+ builds up in the outercompartment ( a.k.a intermembrane space) and the H+ then follows the concentration gradient bactk to the matrix by
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facilitated diffusion
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3) The H+ flow back to inner compartment through the transport proteins/ enzymes, known as ________ which causes a release in energy.
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ATP synthase
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This kinetic energy is used to power the reaction __________
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ADP-P-ATP
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C. What happens to the electrons which have been transferred over and over? The final electron acceptor is oxygen (the electrons originallycame from glucose)
|
H2O
|
|
the reduced oxygen joins with H+ to yield
|
|
|
|
|
|
1) electron transfere yields 2 ATPs ; Krebs yields 2 ATPs, for a grand total of ______ ATPs per glucose molecule
|
36
|
|
|
|
|
2) When energy is transferred from glucose to ATP in the presence of oxygen, the efficiency is about
|
40%
|
|
|
|
|
1) Anaerobic pathways operate when ________ is absent ( or limited)
|
oxygen
|
|
|
|
|
2) Efficiency is about ____ (compared to aerobic respiration=40%) in our muscles.
|
2%
|
|
Our muscles can only make 2 ATP per molecule of glucose this way.
|
|
|
|
|
|
3) Glycolysis is the first stage to yiled 2 ATP, 2 pyruvates, and 2 _______
|
NADH
|
|
|
|
|
4) In the absence of oxygen, the reduced electron shuttler used in glycolysis, _______, cannot donate its electrons to the electron transfer chain.
|
NADH
|
|
Fermentation is a way of regenerating more: NAD+
|
|
|
|
|
|
5) Who uses Anaerobic Pathways
|
strict anaerobes ( bacteria)
|
|
|
faculative anaerobes ( yeast)
|
|
|
muscle cells
|
|
|
|
|
1) 2 Pyruvate-
|
2 ethanol (2c) +2Co2+2NAD+glycolysis
|
|
|
|
|
2) Example organism that uses acloholic fermentation
|
yeast
|
|
|
|
|
1) 2 pyruvate--
|
2 lactate (3C) + NAD+-----glycolisis
|
|
|
|
|
2) Example organisms that use lactate fermentation
|
our muscles
|
|
|
bacteria (cheese making)
|
|
|
|
|
1) endergonic reaction
|
energy in products have more energy than the reactants
|
|
|
ex: photosynthesis
|
|
|
|
|
2) exergonic reactions
|
energy out products have less energy than the reactants
|
|
|
|
|
|
ex: cellular respiration
|
|
|
|
|
3) energy release in cells occurs:
|
in manny small conversion steps because cells capture energy through covalent bonds
|
|
|
in there molecules
|
|
|
|
|
1) function of ATP
|
spends cell energy during endergoinc reactions and makes a cells energy during
|
|
|
exergonic reactions
|
|
|
|
|
2) Structure of ATP
|
made up of adenine
|
|
|
ribose
|
|
|
3 phosphate groups
|
|
|
|
|
3) how ATP provides energy:
|
last phosphate is bound through an unstable covalent bond
|
|
|
when ATP is broken then you get ADP+P energy
|
|
|
|
|
4) ADP + P
|
ATP
|
|
|
|
|
1)oxidized
|
the donor molecule loses one or more electrons
|
|
|
|
|
2) reduced
|
acceptor milecule gains one or more electrons
|
|
|
|
|
A. Enzymes are
|
catalysts -they increase the rate of a reaction
|
|
|
|
|
B. Most enzymes are
|
proteins and a few are RNA
|
|
|
|
|
1) protease-
|
breaks down proteins
|
|
|
|
|
2) DNA polmerase-
|
makes DNA polymers
|
|
|
|
|
3) lactase-
|
breaks down lactose
|
|
|
|
|
1) how do enzymes increase the rate of a reation
|
they lower the energy of the activation barrier(Ea)
|
|
|
Ea-the amount of energy needed to stargt a reaction ( break bonds )
|
|
|
|
|
1) empty _____
|
enzyme
|
|
|
|
|
2) substrate binds to _______
|
enzyme at " active state"
|
|
|
|
|
3) substrate is brought to ____________ where bonds are at breaking point and the reaction
|
" transition state"
|
|
can easily run to completion
|
|
|
|
|
|
4) __________ forms
|
product ( s)
|
|
|
|
|
5) _______ released enzymes is unchanged and the process repeats again and again
|
product ( s)
|
|
|
|
|
1) competitive inhibitor
|
binds to active site.
|
|
|
-this allows less substrate to bind there and results in less product
|
|
|
|
|
2) Non-competitive ( allosteric) inhibitor
|
binds to a site other than the active site.
|
|
|
-This causes shape change in the active site and results in less product
|
|
|
|
|
3) feedback inhibition
|
when the product of a reactions is also the inhibitor
|
|
|
|
|
1) three factors affect enzyme driven reactions
|
temperature
|
|
|
salinity ( level of salt)
|
|
|
pH ( level of acidity)
|
|
|
|
|
|
* extreemes of these affect protein folding and as a result function of enzymes
|
|
|
|
|
1) Membrane structure
|
phopholipid bilayer
|
|
|
|
|
1) function of membranes
|
allows some substances to cross and others cannot
|
|
|
|
|
2) What can freely cross in a membrane?
|
oxygen
|
|
|
carbon dioxxide
|
|
|
some water molecules
|
|
|
other small non polar ( non-charged ) molecules
|
|
|
|
|
3) what crosses with help from transporter proteins in a membrane?
|
Glucose
|
|
|
large polar ( water soluble molecules) ions
|
|
|
ex: calcium, sodium, potassium
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
A. Passive transport is made up of three things
|
simple diffusion
|
|
|
osmosis
|
|
|
facilitated diffusion ( passive diffusion)
|
|
|
|
|
B. In passive transport the concentration gradient is
|
is from high to low
|
|
|
|
|
1) Simple diffusion-
|
particles spontaneously spread from areas of high concentration to low concentration
|
|
|
|
|
2) simple diffusion is made up of
|
concentration gradient-high concentration to low concentration
|
|
|
|
|
|
dynamic equilibrium-concentrationgradient is equal on both sides of membrane
|
|
|
|
|
3) example of simple diffusion
|
gas exchange with red blood cells ( RBCs)
|
|
|
|
|
1) osmosis (diffusion of water )-
|
membranes are semi permeable or selective
|
|
|
- Membranes are permeable to water but some molecules cannot cross.
|
|
|
-Our body continues to go through this process and eventually meets equilibrium.
|
|
|
|
|
2) hyptonic
|
low concentration of solutes
|
|
|
|
|
3) hypertonic
|
high concentration of solutes
|
|
|
|
|
4) isotonic
|
equal concentration solutes
|
|
|
|
|
1) how is facilitated diffusion different from simple diffusion
|
Uses transport proteins which create channels thru the hydrophobic core.
|
|
|
|
|
2) How is facilitated diffusion similar to simple diffusion?
|
it follows concentration gradient and no energy is required.
|
|
|
|
|
3) example of facilitated diffusion would be
|
Glucose transport
|
|
|
|
|
A. In active transport molecules move
|
against concentration gradient from low to high
|
|
|
|
|
B. Active Transportation requires
|
energy and transporter proteins sometimes called pumps
|
|
|
|
|
C. An example of active transport is
|
calcium pump
|
|
|
|
|
A. Bulk transport is made up of two processes
|
exoctyosis ( moving things out )
|
|
|
endocytosis( moving things in )
|
|
|
|
|
1) exoctyosis ( moving things out) -
|
a vesticle from inside cytoplasm fusing with plasma membrane
|
|
|
|
|
1) endoctyosis ( moving things in) is made up of three processes:
|
1) phagocytosis
|
|
|
2) pincoytosis
|
|
|
3) receptor ( mediated endoctosis)
|
|
|
|
|
2) phagocytosis ( cellular eating )
|
large molecules and large items ( i.e. bacteria )
|
|
|
|
|
3) pinocytosis ( cellular drinking)
|
taking in droplets of molecules solutions etc.
|
|
|
|
|
4) receptor ( mediated endocytosis)
|
highly specific, pit forms to bring in only one type of molecule in bulk.
|
|
|
|
|
ATP
|
Adenosine triphosphate. Nucleotide made of adenine, ribose, and three phosphate groups; main energy carrier in cells.
|
|
|
|
|
ATP synthase
|
Membrane-bound active transport protein that acts as an enzyme of ATP formation.
|
|
|
|
|
C3 plant
|
Plant that makes three-carbon PGA in the first step of carbon fixation.
|
|
|
|
|
C4 plant
|
Plant that makes four-carbon oxaloacetate in the first step of carbon fixation.
|
|
|
|
|
CAM plant
|
Plant that conserves water by opening stomata only at night, when it fixes carbon by repeated turns of the C4 pathway.
|
|
|
|
|
Calvin–Benson cycle
|
Light-independent cyclic reactions of photosynthesis. Forms sugars from CO2 using ATP and NADPH.
|
|
|
|
|
anthocyanin
|
Red to blue photosynthetic accessory pigment.
|
|
|
|
|
autotroph
|
An organism that makes its own food using an environmental energy source and carbon from carbon dioxide.
|
|
|
|
|
carotenoid
|
Red to yellow accessory pigment.
|
|
|
|
|
chlorophyll a
|
Primary photosynthetic pigment.
|
|
|
|
|
heterotroph
|
Organism unable to make its own organic compounds; feeds on autotrophs, other heterotrophs, or organic wastes.
|
|
|
|
|
light-dependent reactions
|
The first stage of photosynthesis. Sunlight energy is trapped and converted to chemical energy of ATP, NADPH, or both, depending on the pathway.
|
|
|
|
|
light-independent reactions
|
Second stage of photosynthesis in which sugars are formed from CO2 using ATP and NADPH. Also called the Calvin-Benson cycle.
|
|
|
|
|
photosynthesis
|
Process by which organisms use sunlight energy to convert carbon dioxide and water to sugars.
|
|
|
|
|
photosystem
|
In photosynthetic cells, a cluster of membrane-bound, light-trapping pigments and other molecules.
|
|
|
|
|
phycobilin
|
Red to blue photosynthetic accessory pigment.
|
|
|
|
|
pigment
|
Any light-absorbing molecule.
|
|
|
|
|
rubisco
|
RuBP carboxylase. Enzyme that catalyzes attachment of a carbon atom from carbon dioxide to RuBP and starts the C3 photosynthetic pathway.
|
|
|
|
|
stoma
|
stomata; A gap between two guard cells in leaf or stem epidermis; allows the diffusion of water vapor and gases across the epidermis.
|
|
|
|
|
thylakoid membrane
|
In plants, internal portion of a chloroplast’s membrane system, often folded into flattened sacs, that forms a single compartment. Pigments and enzymes are embedded in it; site of photosynthesis.
|
|
|
|
|
xanthophyll
|
Yellow-orange carotenoid. An accessory pigment.
|
|
|
|
|
1) three compartments of chloroplasts:
|
1) intermembrane space
|
|
|
2) stroma
|
|
|
3) thylakoid space
|
|
|
|
|
1) pigments
|
absorbs protons of light at particle wave length
|
|
|
|
|
2) Chlorophyll has two types
|
chlorophyll a
|
|
|
chlorophyll b
|
|
|
|
|
3) chlorophyll a
|
major pigment, directly participates in light reactions
|
|
|
|
|
4) chlorophyll b
|
accessory pigment antenna
|
|
|
|
|
1) various other accessory pigments
|
act as antenna for chorophyll a
|
|
|
|
|
1) accessory antennae molecules
|
help absorb light energy and transfer it to reaction center
|
|
|
|
|
2) Reaction center consists of :
|
a ) chlrophyll "a"
|
|
|
|
|
|
b) primary electron receptor
|
|
|
|
|
3) Photon
|
fixed quantity of light
|
|
|
|
|
1) Photosynthesis
|
6CO2 +6H2O +light energy-----C6H12O6 (glucose) 6O2 (oxygen)
|
|
|
|
|
2) Aerobic Respiration
|
C6H12O6 +6O2 -------------6CO2 +6H2O + 36 ATP
|
|
|
|
|
1) Photosynthesis
|
makes glucose
|
|
|
|
|
2) Aerobic repsiration
|
to make energy using glucose
|
|
|
|
|
1) Both Photosynthesis nad Aerobic respiration use
|
electron transfer chains and H+ gradients to generate ATP
|
|
|
|
|
2) Photosynthesis
|
light dependent in the thylakoid membrane and protons are pumped from one compartment to another through active transportpumped to the thylakoid.
|
|
|
They move back to the stroma throguh facilitated diffusion
|
|
|
|
|
3) Aerobic Respiration (3rd stage)
|
Enzymes are located in inner mitochondrial membrane using active transport.
|
|
|
THey move from inner to outer by facilitated diffusion and move back to the inner compartment
|
|
|
This is where they make ATP.
|
|
|
|
|
1) Photosynthesis use redox rxns and shuttler molecultes to
|
pass electrons to generate energy
|
|
|
|
|
2) photosynthesis uses redox reactions and shuttler molecules through
|
NADPH ( holding electrons) reduced
|
|
|
|
|
3) Aerobic respiration using redox reactions through
|
NADH and FADH
|
|
|
|
|
1) where does the hill reaction take place?
|
cholorplasts
|
|
|
thylakoid membrane
|
|
|
|
|
1) summary of hills reaction
|
ATP +NADPH-----light energy
|
|
|
|
|
|
atp=usuable cellular energy
|
|
|
|
|
1) light absorption and electron excitement in
|
Photosystem II
|
|
|
|
|
2) Series of redox reactions in an
|
Electron Transport Chain ( ETC)
|
|
|
|
|
3) Facilitated diffusion of H+ into
|
stroma
|
|
|
|
|
4) Transfer and reexcitement of electrons in
|
Photosystem I
|
|
|
|
|
5) A series of _____ reactions in in a electron transport chain ( ETC)
|
redox
|
|
|
|
|
6) Electron replacement for PS II:
|
electrons lost from PII are replaced with electrons from H2O that splits
|
|
|
|
|
1) Who uses photsynthesis? (photosynthetic autotrpohs "self feeders")
|
1) plants
|
|
|
2) bacteria ( some)
|
|
|
3) protists ( some) ex: seaweed
|
|
|
|
|
1) 6CO2+6H2O+light energy
|
C6H12O6 (glucose)
|
|
|
|
|
|
6O2 (oxygen)
|
|
|
|
|
|
(reverse of respiration)
|
|
|
|
|
a) location of calvin benson cycle ( light independent reactions )
|
chloroplasts-specifically the stroma
|
|
|
|
|
b) summary of Calvin Benson Cycle
|
CO2 + ATP +NADPH---glucose ---ADP+NADP
|
|
|
|
|
c) Carbon fixation-
|
enzyme rubisco joins 6 CO2 with 6 RuBP ( 5c) --------12 PGAL
|
|
|
|
|
d) what happens to the phophoglycerate ( PGA)?
|
Series of reactions requiring phosphate from ATP and electrons from NADPH---12PGAL
|
|
|
|
|
e) cost of one glucose -(six turns of the cycle)
|
6CO2 +18ATP + NADPH---glucose
|
|
|
|
|
ATP
|
Adenosine triphosphate. Nucleotide made of adenine, ribose, and three phosphate groups; main energy carrier in cells.
|
|
|
|
|
Golgi body
|
Organelle of endomembrane system; final modification of polypeptide chains into proteins, lipid assembly, and packaging of both in vesicles for secretion or for use inside cell.
|
|
|
|
|
archaea
|
Evolutionarily distinct domain of prokaryotic organisms.
|
|
|
|
|
bacteria
|
The most widespread and diverse group of prokaryotic organisms.
|
|
|
|
|
basal body
|
An organelle that gives rise to cilia or flagella; resembles a centriole.
|
|
|
|
|
cell
|
Smallest living unit, with a capacity to survive and reproduce on its own.
|
|
|
|
|
cell cortex
|
Three-dimensional mesh of actin filaments and other proteins just under the plasma membrane.
|
|
|
|
|
cell theory
|
Idea that all organisms consist of similar units of organization called cells.
|
|
|
|
|
cell wall
|
A semirigid, permeable structure encloses the plasma membrane of many cells; helps cell retain its shape and resist rupturing.
|
|
|
|
|
central vacuole
|
Fluid-filled storage organelle of a plant cell.
|
|
|
|
|
cytoplasm
|
All cell parts, particles, and semifluid substances between the plasma membrane and the nucleus (or nucleoid).
|
|
|
|
|
endoplasmic reticulum
|
ER. Organelle that starts at the nuclear envelope and extends through cytoplasm. Smooth ER assembles membrane lipids, breaks down fatty acids, and inactivates some toxins; Rough ER (has ribosomes on its cytoplasmic side) modifies new polypeptide chains.
|
|
|
|
|
fluid mosaic model
|
A cell membrane is fluid because of the motions and interactions of its component lipids and proteins.
|
|
|
|
|
lipid bilayer
|
Mainly phospholipids arranged tail-to-tail in two layers; structural basis of all cell membranes.
|
|
|
|
|
microfilament
|
Cytoskeletal element; consists of actin subunits. Involved in movement and structural integrity of cells.
|
|
|
|
|
microtubule
|
Cytoskeletal element; consists of tubulin subunits. Contributes to cell shape, growth, and motion; constituent of spindles
|
|
|
|
|
mitochondrion
|
mitochondria; Organelle of ATP formation; site of aerobic respiration’s second and third stages.
|
|
|
|
|
motor protein
|
Protein that associates with microtubules or microfilaments and has a role in cell movement.
|
|
|
|
|
nuclear envelope
|
Lipid bilayer membrane enclosing the nucleus of eukaryotes.
|
|
|
|
|
nucleus
|
Organelle that physically separates DNA from the cytoplasm in a eukaryotic cell.
|
|
|
|
|
organelle
|
Membrane-bound compartment in the eukaryotic cytoplasm; has one or more specialized metabolic functions.
|
|
|
|
|
osmotic pressure
|
Hydrostatic pressure that counters inward diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane inside a cell or enclosed body region.
|
|
|
|
|
phospholipid
|
Lipid with a phosphate group. Major constituent of biological membranes.
|
|
|
|
|
plasma membrane
|
Outermost cell membrane; structural and functional boundary between the cytoplasm and fluid surrounding the cell.
|
|
|
|
|
polypeptide chain
|
Three or more amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
|
|
|
|
|
ribosome
|
Structure upon which polypeptide chains are built. An intact ribosome consists of two subunits of rRNA and proteins.
|
|
|
|
|
surface-to-volume ratio
|
Physical relationship in which volume increases with the cube of the diameter, but surface area increases with the square; constrains increases in cell size.
|
|
|
|
|
wavelength
|
A wavelike form of energy in motion. The horizontal distance between the crests of every two successive waves.
|
|
|
|
|
intermediate filament
|
Cytoskeletal element; mechanically strengthens some animal cells.
|
|
|
|
|
chloroplast
|
Organelle of photosynthesis in plants and many protists.
|
|
|
|
|
nucleoid
|
Of bacterial cells, the region in which DNA is physically organized; not separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane.
|
|
|
|
|
aerobic respiration
|
Oxygen-dependent pathway of ATP formation in which glucose is broken down to carbon dioxide and water in several steps, including glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and electron transfer phosphorylation. Typical net yield: 36 ATP.
|
|
|
|
|
hydrostatic pressure
|
Pressure exerted by a volume of fluid against a wall, membrane, or some other structure that encloses it.
|
|
|
|
|
ATP
|
Adenosine triphosphate. Nucleotide made of adenine, ribose, and three phosphate groups; main energy carrier in cells.
|
|
|
|
|
ATP/ADP cycle
|
Alternating formation of ATP and ADP through phosphate group transfers.
|
|
|
|
|
activation energy
|
Minimum amount of energy required to start a reaction; enzyme action lowers this energy barrier.
|
|
|
|
|
active transport
|
Pumping of a specific solute across a membrane against its concentration gradient, through a transport protein’s interior. Requires energy input.
|
|
|
|
|
calcium pump
|
Membrane-bound active transport protein specific for calcium ions.
|
|
|
|
|
cell junction
|
A site where adjoining cells interact physically, chemically, or both.
|
|
|
|
|
chemical equilibrium
|
The state at which the concentrations of reactants and products in a reversible chemical reaction remain constant.
|
|
|
|
|
cilium
|
cilia; In some eukaryotic cells, a short motile structure or sensory structure.
|
|
|
|
|
concentration gradient
|
A difference in the number of molecules (or ions) of a substance between two adjoining regions.
|
|
|
|
|
diffusion
|
Net movement of like molecules or ions down their concentration gradient.
|
|
|
|
|
electron transfer chain
|
Array of membrane-bound enzymes and other molecules that accept and give up electrons in sequence; allows the release and capture of energy in small, useful increments.
|
|
|
|
|
endocytosis
|
Cellular uptake of a substance; plasma membrane forms a vesicle around it.
|
|
|
|
|
energy
|
Capacity to do work.
|
|
|
|
|
enzyme
|
A type of protein (or, rarely, RNA) that accelerates a chemical reaction.
|
|
|
|
|
exocytosis
|
Release of a vesicle’s contents outside the cell surface when it fuses with and becomes part of the plasma membrane.
|
|
|
|
|
feedback inhibition
|
Of cells, an activity causes a change in cellular conditions, and that change in turn causes the activity to slow down or stop.
|
|
|
|
|
first law of thermodynamics
|
The total amount of energy in the universe is constant; energy can be converted from one form to another, but cannot be created or destroyed.
|
|
|
|
|
fluid mosaic model
|
A cell membrane is fluid because of the motions and interactions of its component lipids and proteins.
|
|
|
|
|
hydrostatic pressure
|
Pressure exerted by a volume of fluid against a wall, membrane, or some other structure that encloses it.
|
|
|
|
|
induced-fit model
|
An enzyme changes shape to fit a bound substrate, and the resulting tension destabilizes the substrate’s bonds.
|
|
|
|
|
lipid bilayer
|
Mainly phospholipids arranged tail-to-tail in two layers; structural basis of all cell membranes.
|
|
|
|
|
lysosome
|
Organelle of intracellular digestion
|
|
|
|
|
metabolic pathway
|
Sequence of enzyme-mediated reactions by which cells assemble and build or break down organic compounds.
|
|
|
|
|
metabolism
|
All the controlled, enzyme-mediated chemical reactions by which cells acquire and use energy to synthesize, store, degrade, and eliminate substances.
|
|
|
|
|
osmosis
|
Diffusion of water between two regions separated by a selectively permeable membrane.
|
|
|
|
|
osmotic pressure
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Hydrostatic pressure that counters inward diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane inside a cell or enclosed body region.
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oxidation–reduction reaction
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Transfer of electrons between reactant molecules.
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passive transport
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Diffusion of a solute across a cell membrane, through a transport protein.
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peroxisome
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Enzyme-filled vesicle that breaks down amino acids and fatty acids to hydrogen peroxide, which is converted to harmless products.
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phospholipid
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Lipid with a phosphate group. Major constituent of biological membranes.
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phosphorylation
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Enzyme-mediated transfer of a phosphate group between molecules.
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photosynthesis
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Process by which organisms use sunlight energy to convert carbon dioxide and water to sugars.
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pressure gradient
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Difference in pressure being exerted in two adjoining regions.
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second law of thermodynamics
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A law of nature stating that the spontaneous direction of energy flow is from organized forms to less organized forms; with each conversion, some energy is randomly dispersed in a form (usually heat) not as useful for doing work.
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selective permeability
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Built-in capacity of a cell membrane to stop some substances from crossing, and to allow others to cross it, at certain times, in certain amounts.
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solute
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Any substance dissolved in a solution.
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substrate-level phosphorylation
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The direct, enzyme-mediated transfer of a phosphate group from a substrate to another molecule.
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1) chromatin
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all the cells linear chromosomes and their asosciated proteins
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2) nuclear envelope
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two phospholipid bilayers with nuclear pores
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-it seperates the chromatin from cytoplasm.
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3) Nucleolus
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ribosome factory where ribosomes are made.
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4) ribosomes
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made up of RNA and proteins, functions in cytoplasm
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which can be free or attached to rough ER and link amino acids together.
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they are not enclosed in the membrane
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1) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
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a) Structure -stacked, flattened sacs and types studded with ribosomes. Membrane continuous with nuclear envelope
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b) Function-folding of proteins that will be secreted from the cell
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2) Smooth ER
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a. structure -noribosomes continuous with Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
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b. function-synthesize lipids, detoxification, add to proteins from RER, making hormones, making new membranes
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3) Golgi Bodies
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a) structure-flattened sacs, not continuous with ER
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b) function-shipping and recieving proteins from ER modify secretory proteins ( chemiscal)
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4) Lysosomes
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a) structure-membrane enclose vesicle buds from Golgi stays inside the cell
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b) function-contains enzymes to digest various macromolecules, old organelles, and foreign matter
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5) Central vacuole ( plants)
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a) structure-1 very large vesicle
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b) function-storage of ions, amino acids, sugars, water
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A) endomembrane system
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internal membrane system
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B) Endomembrane system is composed of :
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1)Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum ( RER)
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2) Smooth ER
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3)Golgi Bodies
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4)Lysosomes
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5)Central Vacuole
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1) Mitochondria definition
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cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells
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2) Mitochondria function
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transfer the energy in carbohydrates to cellular energy (ATP) only in the presence of oxyggen
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3) Mitochondria Structure
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inner highly folded and outer bilayer membranes
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4. Compartments or spaces ( intermembrane space)
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between outer and inner membrane ( outer compartment)
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inside inner membrane matrix ( inner compartment )
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2) Chloroplasts structure-
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three phosoplipid bilayer membranes
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outer
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inner
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mulakoid
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3)Chloroplasts Compartments or spaces
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outer compartment ( intermembrane)
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inner -stroma thick fluid
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thykaloid space
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1) chloroplasts function
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trap sunlight with photosynthetic pigments to make carbohydrates
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1) microtubules structure
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long, hollow cylinders made up of rubulin ( protein)
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2) Microtubules function
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tracks for movement of chromosomes and organelles
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3) Microtubules assemble / dissassemble
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yes they do
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1) microfilaments structure
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2 coiled chains of actin
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2) microfilaments function
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general cell movement, involved in cytokinesis cell pinching during division of cells
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3) microfilaments assemble/ disassemble
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yes they do
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1) intermediate filaments structure
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ropelike, made of various fibrous proteins
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2) Intermediate filaments function
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support for tension
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3) Intermediate Filaments assemble / disassemble
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no they don't
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1) flagella (long and cilia ( short ) have the same structure in cross-section
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9 doublets and 2 microtubules
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2) flagella and cillia are anchored into the cytoplasm at what is called a ______
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basal body
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3) THe structure of the basal body in cross section is
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9 triplets
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4) Energy is used by a " motor protein called ______ which walks along the neighboring
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dynein
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microtubules so that they slide past each other in a whipping motion
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1) pseudopods temporary lobes that project from the cell, used in
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cell locomotion ( amoeba)
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1. _________ such as prokaryotic flagella for rapid
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Surface projections
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movement or pilli which aid in attachment to surfaces
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2. ___________ consists of sticky polysaccharides that help cells attach to surfaces.
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Capsule
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3. _________ rigid support for the cell, helps regulate transport in / out of cell.
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Cell wall
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4. _______ consists of lipid bi-layer; regulates transport in out of cell
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plasma membrane
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5. ________ protein factories in the cytoplasm
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Ribosomes
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6. _______ single, circular DNA molecule in cytoplasm
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Nucleoid Region
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1) two domains of prokaryotes exist
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1) eubacteria -true bacteria
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2) archaea-ancient bacteria
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2) archaea have some eukaric properties but not quite eukaryotes
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a. extreme halopholes -salt lovers that live in high salt enviornments
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b. extreme thermophiles -heat lovers and live in high heat environments
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c. Methanogens live in enviornments with low oxygen and release methane
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1) Cells
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the smalles unit that breaks and builds macromolecules
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respond to environment, grow and reproduce.
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2) All cells have three features in common
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-plasma membrane -seperates cell from the environment; regulates molecule transport in and out of cell
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-hereditary material (DNA)
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-Cytoplasm-a water based semi fluid which contains organelles ( little organs) and fibers
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3) There are basiaclly two kinds of cells in nature:
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1-prokaryotic - no defined nucleus
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2- eukaryotic-have a nucleus
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Cell size is constrained by
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surface area nad volume ratio
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1. All organisms are composed of
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one or more cells
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2. The cell is the smalles unit having
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properties of life
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3. The continuity of life arises directly from
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the growth and division of single cells
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1. Phospholipid bilaryer
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hydrophobic core and hydrophic heads
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2. THe _________describes a cell membrane of mixed composition.
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Fluid Mosaic Model
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3. Proteins interspersed in the lipid bilaryer serve many functions
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adhesion -stick to surface
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communication - talk with neighboring cells
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transport enzymes -things moving in and out of cell
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receptors-way of recieving signals from the enviornment
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anaphase
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Of mitosis, stage when sister chromatids of each chromosome move to opposite spindle poles. During anaphase I (meiosis), each duplicated chromosome and its homologue move to opposite poles. During anaphase II, sister chromatids of each chromosome move to opposite poles.
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bipolar mitotic spindle
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Dynamic array of microtubules that moves chromosomes in precise directions during mitosis or meiosis.
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cancer
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Malignant neoplasm; mass of cells that divide abnormally and can spread in the body.
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cell cycle
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Series of events from one cell division to the next. Interphase, mitosis, and cytoplasmic division constitute one cycle.
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