Final Exam

Front 1

Learning

Back 1

Process by which experience produces a relatively enduring change in an organism's behaviour/capabilities; affects emotional reactions, perceptions, and physiological responses

Front 2

Habituation

Back 2

Decrease in strength of response to a repeated stimulus

Front 3

Sensitization

Back 3

Increase in strength of response to a repeated stimulus

Front 4

Acquisition

Back 4

Period of learning a response

Front 5

Forward-Short Delay Pairing

Back 5

CS appears first and is still present when UCS appears (best)

Front 6

Forward Trace Pairing

Back 6

CS would occur then quickly afterward (2-3 secs) UCS would appear (good)

Front 7

Simultaneous Pairing

Back 7

CS and UCS appear at the same time (bad)

Front 8

Backward Pairing

Back 8

CS appears after UCS (worst)

Front 9

Extinction

Back 9

If CS is presented repeatedly without following UCS, CR weakens and eventually disappears

Front 10

Extinction Trial

Back 10

Each time CS appears without UCS

Front 11

Spontaneous Recovery

Back 11

Reappearance of a previously extinguished CR after a rest period without new learning trials

Front 12

Discrimination

Back 12

Demonstrated with a CR occurs to one stimulus but not to others

Front 13

Higher-order Conditioning

Back 13

Neutral stimulus becomes a CS after being paired with an already established CS

Front 14

Exposure Therapies

Back 14

Expose phobic patient to feared stimulus (CS) without any UCS, allowing extinction

Front 15

Aversion Therapy

Back 15

Attempts to condition an aversion to a stimulus that triggers unwanted behaviour by pairing it with a noxious UCS

Front 16

Law of Effect

Back 16

A response followed by a "satisfying" consequence will be more likely to occur, and a response followed by an "unsatisfying" consequence will be less likely to occur

Front 17

Operant Behaviour

Back 17

An organism operates on its environment in some way

Front 18

Operant Conditioning (OC)

Back 18

Type of learning in which behaviour is influenced by its consequences

Front 19

Skinner Box

Back 19

Lever opened cup to allow pellet of food to drop to rat

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Reinforcement

Back 20

Response is strengthened by an outcome that follows it; 1) Positive reinforcement: adds something for reward; 2) Negative reinforcement: removes something for reward

Front 21

Punishment

Back 21

Response is weakened by an outcome that follows it; 1) Positive punishment: adds something for punishment; 2) Negative punishment: removes something for punishement

Front 22

ABC's of Operant Conditioning

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A) Antecedents: stimulus present before a behaviour occurs; B) Behaviours: behaviour organism emits; C) Consequences: consequences that follow a behaviour

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Contingencies

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Relations between A and B, and B and C (ABCs of operant conditioning)

Front 24

Discriminative Stimulus

Back 24

Signal that a particular response will now produce certain consequences

Front 25

Operant Extinction

Back 25

Weakening and eventual disappearance of a response because it is no longer reinforced

Front 26

Resistance to Extinction

Back 26

Degree to which non-reinforced behaviours persist

Front 27

Primary/Intrinsic Reinforcers

Back 27

Stimulus found naturally reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs

Front 28

Secondary/Conditioned/Extrinsic Reinforcers

Back 28

Stimulus associated with primary reinforcers

Front 29

Delay of Gratification

Back 29

Ability to turn down an immediate, smaller reward for a delayed, larger reward

Front 30

Shaping

Back 30

Process of reinforcing successive approximation towards a final response

Front 31

Chaining

Back 31

Used to develop a chain/sequence of responses by reinforcing each response with the opportunity to perform the next response

Front 32

Operant Generalization

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An operant response occurs to a new antecedent stimulus/situation that is similar to the original one

Front 33

Operant Discrimination

Back 33

An operant response will occur to one antecedent stimulus but not to another

Front 34

Operant Discrimination Training

Back 34

Teach an organism to make a response when a discriminative stimulus is present produces positive consequences

Front 35

Schedule of Reinforcement

Back 35

Different reinforcement patterns/frequencies

Front 36

Continuous Reinforcement Schedule

Back 36

Every response of a particular type is reinforced

Front 37

Partial/Intermittent Reinforcement

Back 37

Only some responses are reinforced

Front 38

Ratio Schedules

Back 38

Certain % of responses are reinforced based on the # of performances; 1) Fixed-ratio schedule: reinforcement is given after a fixed # of responses; 2) Variable-ratio schedule: reinforcement is given after a variable # of correct responses based on a n average

Front 39

Interval Schedules

Back 39

Certain amount of time must elapse between reinforcements; 1) Fixed-interval schedule: first correct response that occurs after a fixed time interval is reinforced; 2) Variable-interval schedule: first correct response that occurs after a variable time interval

Front 40

Escape Conditioning

Back 40

Organisms learn a response to terminate an aversive stimulus

Front 41

Avoidance Conditioning

Back 41

Organism learns a response to completely avoid aversive stimulus

Front 42

Two-Factor Theory of Avoidance Learning

Back 42

CC and OC are both involved in avoidance conditioning

Front 43

Applied Behaviour Analysis/Behaviour Modification

Back 43

Program is designed and implemented to change behaviour, and its effectiveness is measured before and after program occurs

Front 44

Preparedness

Back 44

Through evolution, animals are biologically prewired to easily learn behaviours related to their species' survival

Front 45

Conditioned Taste Aversion

Back 45

Taste and smell of food (CS) that has made organism ill due to some toxin (UCS) can produce a CR of repulsion from taste/smell of that food

Front 46

Instinctive Drift

Back 46

Conditioned response drifts back toward instinctive behaviour

Front 47

Learning and Brain Areas

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- Nucleus accumbens and dopamine: play a key role in experiencing reward

- Hypothalamus: involved in pleasure

- Cerebellum: acquiring CC movements

Front 48

Cognitive Model of Learning

Back 48

Stimulus (S) and response (R), as well as organism's (O) mental representation of world

Front 49

Insight

Back 49

Sudden perception of a useful relationship that helps to solve a problem

Front 50

Cognitive Map

Back 50

Mental representation of maze/structure layout

Front 51

Expectancy Model

Back 51

Most important factor in CC is how well CS predicts appearance of the UCS rather than how often CS and UCS are paired

Front 52

Latent Learning

Back 52

Learning that occurs but is not demonstrated until there is an incentive to perform

Front 53

Cognitive Self-Evaluations

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Internal/personal rewards/punishments shape behaviour despite external reinforcers/punishers

Front 54

Observational Learning

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Learning that occurs by observing the behaviour of a model

Front 55

Social Cognitive Theory/Social Learning Theory

Back 55

People learn by observing the behaviour of models and believing that they can produce behaviours to influence events in life

Front 56

Modelling Process

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1) Attention: must pay attention to model's behaviour; 2) Retention: must retain info in memory so it can be recalled when needed; 3) Reproduction: must be physically capable of reproducing model's behaviour/similar behaviour; 4) Motivation: must be motivated to display behaviour

Front 57

Self-efficacy

Back 57

Represents people's belief that they have capability to perform behaviours that will produce a desired outcome

Front 58

Incidental Learning

Back 58

Learning that happens without deliberate attempt

Front 59

Intentional Learning

Back 59

Learning that happens with deliberate attempt

Front 60

Equipotentiality

Back 60

Everything should have an equal chance of becoming a CS

Front 61

Non-associative

Back 61

Only select things become a CS

Front 62

Memory

Back 62

Process that allows info and experiences to be recorded and later retrieved; 1) Encoding; 2) Storage; 3) Retrieval

Front 63

Encoding

Back 63

Getting info into the system by translating it into a neural code that brain processes

Front 64

Storage

Back 64

Retaining info over time

Front 65

Retrieval

Back 65

Pulling info out of storage when use is needed

Front 66

Three Component Model of Memory

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1) Sensory memory; 2) Short-term/Working memory; 3) Long-term memory

Front 67

Sensory Memory

Back 67

Holds incoming sensory info just long enough for it to be recognized

Front 68

Sensory Registers

Back 68

Initial info processors; a) Iconic stores: visual registers; b) Echoic stores: auditory registers

Front 69

Short-term/Working Memory

Back 69

Holds info we are conscious of at any given time

Front 70

Memory Codes

Back 70

Mental representations of sensory memory that can be remembered in short/long term memory

Front 71

Visual Encoding

Back 71

Form mental image

Front 72

Phonological Encoding

Back 72

Code by sound

Front 73

Semantic Coding

Back 73

Focus on the meaning of the stimulus

Front 74

Motor Encoding

Back 74

Code patterns of movement

Front 75

Chunking

Back 75

Combining individual items into larger units of meaning

Front 76

Maintenance Rehearsal

Back 76

Simple repetition of info

Front 77

Elaborative Rehearsal

Back 77

Focus on meaning of info/relation to already known things

Front 78

4 Components of STM

Back 78

1) Phonological loop; 2) Visuo-spatial sketchpad; 3) Episodic buffer; 4) Central executive

Front 79

Phonological Loop/Auditory Working Memory

Back 79

Maintains some info by repeating sounds

Front 80

Visuospatial Sketchpad/Visual-spatial Memory

Back 80

Temporarily store and manipulate images and spatial info

Front 81

Episodic Buffer

Back 81

Temporary storage space where info from LTM and phonological loop/visuospatial sketchpad can be integrated, manipulated, and made available for conscious awareness

Front 82

Central Executive

Back 82

Control process that directs action, allocates attention to mental imagery and auditory rehearsal, calls up info from LTM, and integrates the input (involves prefrontal cortex)

Front 83

Long-term Memor

Back 83

Vast library of stored memories

Front 84

Serial Position Effect

Back 84

Recall is influenced by word's position in a series of items; 1) Primacy effect; 2) Recency effect

Front 85

Primacy Effect

Back 85

Superior recall of early words

Front 86

Recency Effect

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Superior recall of most recent words

Front 87

Effortful Processing

Back 87

Encoding that is initiated intentionally and requires conscious attention

Front 88

Automatic Processing

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Encoding that occurs without intention and requires little/no attention

Front 89

Structural Encoding

Back 89

Focus on way something looks

Front 90

Levels of Processing

Back 90

More deeply info is processed, the better it is remember

Front 91

Hierarchies

Back 91

Memory is enhanced by associations between concepts

Front 92

Mneumonic Devices

Back 92

Any type of memory aid

Front 93

Dual-coding Theory

Back 93

Encoding info using both verbal and non-verbal codes

Front 94

Method of Loci

Back 94

Placing memories/info into mental rooms

Front 95

Schema

Back 95

"Mental framework"; organized pattern of thought about some aspect of the world

Front 96

Associative Network

Back 96

Massive network of associated ideas and concepts

Front 97

Spreading Activation

Back 97

One memory activates another

Front 98

Priming

Back 98

Activation of one concept by another

Front 99

Neural Network

Back 99

Each concept is represented by a particular pattern/"set of nodes" that activates simultaneously

Front 100

Parallel Distributed Processing Models

Back 100

As multiple nodes distributed throughout brain fire in parallel and spread activation to other nodes, concepts and info are retrieved and thoughts arise

Front 101

Declarative memory

Back 101

Involves factual knowledge; 1) Episodic memory; 2) Semantic memory

Front 102

Episodic Memory

Back 102

Store of factual knowledge about personal experiences

Front 103

Semantic memory

Back 103

Store of general factual knowledge about the world and language

Front 104

Procedural Memory

Back 104

Reflected in skills and actions; 1) Skills; 2) Classically conditioned responses

Front 105

Explicit Memory

Back 105

Conscious/intentional memory retrieval; 1) Recognition; 2) Recall

Front 106

Recognition

Back 106

Decide whether a stimulus is familiar

Front 107

Recall

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Spontaneous memory retrieval

Front 108

Cued Recall

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Hints given to stimulate memory

Front 109

Implicit Memory

Back 109

When memory influences behaviour without conscious awareness

Front 110

Priming Tasks

Back 110

Tasks that prime later memory

Front 111

Retrieval Cue

Back 111

Any stimulus that stimulates activation of info stored in LTM

Front 112

Flashbulb Memories

Back 112

Recollections that seems so vivid they could be snapshots of a moment in time

Front 113

Encoding Specificity Principle

Back 113

Memory is enhanced when conditions present during retrieval match those present during encoding

Front 114

Context-dependent Memory

Back 114

Easier to remember something when in same environment as where it was acquired

Front 115

State-dependent Memory

Back 115

Ability to retrieve info is greater when our internal state at retrieval matches external during learning

Front 116

Mood-congruent Recall

Back 116

Tend to recall info/events that are congruent with current mood

Front 117

Encoding Failure

Back 117

Failure to encode info into LTM

Front 118

Decay Theory

Back 118

With time and disuse, the physical memory trace in the nervous system fades/decays

Front 119

Reminiscence

Back 119

May recall info better second time testing despite lack of new learning trials

Front 120

Interference Theory

Back 120

Forget info because other items in LTM impair ability to retrieve it; 1) Proactive interference; 2) Retroactive interference

Front 121

Proactive Interference

Back 121

When material learned in past interferes with recall of newer material

Front 122

Retroactive Interference

Back 122

When material learned recently interferes with recall of past material

Front 123

Retrieval Error

Back 123

When retrieval cues are associated with similar memories, or there are too few retrieval cues for info

Front 124

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon

Back 124

Cannot recall target word but feel on the verge of recalling it

Front 125

Retrograde Amnesia

Back 125

Memory loss for events that occurred prior to onset of amnesia

Front 126

Anterograde Amnesia

Back 126

Memory loss for events that occur after the onset of amnesia

Front 127

Dementia

Back 127

Impaired memory, and other deficits that accompany brain degradation and interfere with normal functioning

Front 128

Alzheimer's Disease

Back 128

Progressive brain disorder causing forgetfulness, poor judgement, confusion, and disorientation

Front 129

Infantile Amnesia

Back 129

Memory loss for early childhood experiences

Front 130

Retrospective Memory

Back 130

Memory for past events

Front 131

Prospective Memory

Back 131

Remembering to perform a future activity

Front 132

Boundary Extension

Back 132

Remembering a scene as being more expansive/wider angled than it originally was

Front 133

Misinformation Effect

Back 133

Distortion of a memory by misleading post-event info

Front 134

Source Confusion/Source Monitoring Error

Back 134

Tendency to recall/recognize something as familiar but forget where it was encountered

Front 135

Memory Consolidation

Back 135

Process by which memory is initially processed in different regions of cortex and gradually binds together in hippocampus

Front 136

Long-term Potentiation

Back 136

Enduring increase in synaptic strength from rapid stimulation

Front 137

Depth of Processing

Back 137

Degree of thinking

Front 138

Measures of Central Tendency

Back 138

1. Mean: average; 2. Median: middle number; 3. Mode: most frequent number

Front 139

Types of Research

Back 139

1) Descriptive: record events; 2) Correlational: relationships between variables; 3) Experimental: examine cause and effect relationships

Front 140

Independent Variable

Back 140

Is manipulated/controlled during an experiment, is not affected by other variables

Front 141

Dependent Variable

Back 141

Is observed/measured during an experiment, is affected by other variables

Front 142

Measures of Variability

Back 142

1) Range; 2) Deviation score; 3) Sum of Squared Errors (SS); 4) Sample Variance (s^2); 5) Sample Standard Deviation (s)

Front 143

Levels of Measurement

Back 143

1) Categorical (descrete) variable: made of categories - binary, nominal and ordinal scales; 2) Continuous variable: score that can take any value the on scale used - interval and ratio scales

Front 144

Binary Scale

Back 144

Two responses (ex/ yes, no)

Front 145

Nominal Scale

Back 145

Distinct categories with no rank and order (ex/ 1 = dog, 2 = cat, 3 = bird)

Front 146

Ordinal Scale

Back 146

Ordered or ranked categories (ex/ low, medium, and high income)

Front 147

Interval Scale

Back 147

Equal intervals on the scale represent equaldifferences in the variable being measured; zero is arbitrary (ex/ IQ: 0 does not mean no IQ at all)

Front 148

Ratio Scale

Back 148

Equal intervals on the scale represent equaldifferences in the property being measured; zero is meaningful (ex/ weight: 0 means no weight at all)

Front 149

Z Scores

Back 149

The number of standard deviations between the mean and a particular score; z = (x - xbar)/s

Front 150

Percentile Rank

Back 150

Percentage of pop. that falls below a particular score; uses z score to locate percentile rank on sheet

Front 151

Range

Back 151

Max - min

Front 152

Deviation Score

Back 152

x - xbar (score - mean)

Front 153

Sum of Squared Errors (SS)

Back 153

Sum x^2 (square scores and add them together *should always come to 0*)

Front 154

Sample Variance (s^2)

Back 154

SS/n-1 (divide SS by number of scores - 1)

Front 155

Sample Standard Deviation (s)

Back 155

Square root of s^2 (sample variance)