Final Anatomy And Physiology

Front 1

Internal and External Oxygen Exchange

Back 1

External gas exchange: Gases move between alveoli and capillary blood

Internal gas exchange: Gases move between blood and tissues

Front 2

Inspiration Muscles

Back 2

Inspiration: Active process-air moves into lungs
Inspiratory muscles include diaphragm and external intercostals
•Diaphragm flattens and contracts during: increases length of thorax
External intercostals relax: elevates the ribs and increases the size of thorax from the front to the back and from side to side

Front 3

Expiration Muscles

Back 3

Expiration: moves Carbon Dioxide outside lungs
•During expiration, thorax returns to its resting size and shape
•Elastic recoil of lung tissues aids in expiration
•Internal intercostals-contraction depresses rib cage and decreases size of thorax from front to back
•Abdominal muscles, diaphragm contracts, decreasing size of thoracic cavity from top to bottom
•Reduction in the size of the thoracic cavity increases its pressure and air leaves the lungs

Front 4

Sufractant

Back 4

Surfactant-reduces surface tension in alveoli to keep them from collapsing

Front 5

Lobes in Lungs

Back 5

Lobes-3 right, 2 left, 2 in left cause of heart

Front 6

Upper Respiratory Tract vs Lower Respiratory Tract

Back 6

Upper respiratory tract
1. Nose
2. Pharynx
3. Larynx

Lower respiratory tract
1. Trachea
2. Bronchial tree
3. Lungs

Front 7

Portion of Brain where involuntary respiration is controlled

Back 7

• Most important central regulatory centers in medulla are called respiratory control centers (inspiratory and expiratory centers). Involved in involuntary respiration.

Front 8

Cyanosis

Back 8

•Cyanosis: blue skin cause of lack of oxygen

Front 9

Suffocation

Back 9

Suffocation: No oxygen presence at all.

Front 10

Hypoxemia

Back 10

Hypoxemia: decreased oxygen pressure in blood, Oxygen Sat less than 90%

Front 11

Hypoxia

Back 11

Hypoxia: deprived of oxygen supply

Front 12

Tidal Volume

Back 12

Tidal volume (TV)-amount normally breathed in or out with each breath

Front 13

Vital Capacity

Back 13

Vital capacity (VC)-greatest amount of air that one can breathe out in one expiration

Front 14

Expiratory Reserve volume

Back 14

Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)-amount of air that cam be forcibly exhaled after expiring the tidal volume

Front 15

Inspiratory reserve volume

Back 15

Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)-amount of air that can be forcibly inhaled after a normal inspiration

Front 16

Residual Volume

Back 16

Residual volume (RV)-air that remains in the lungs after the most forceful expiration

Front 17

Epiglottis

Back 17

A large, leaf-shaped piece of elastic cartilage. During swallowing, the pharynx and larynx rise. Elevation of the pharynx widens it to receive food and drink; elevation of the larynx causes the epiglottis to move down and form a lid over the glottis, closing it off.

Front 18

Structure where gas exchange ocurrs

Back 18

Alveoli

Front 19

Exchange of gases in lungs

Back 19

•Carbaminohemoglobin breaks down into carbon dioxide and hemoglobin
•Carbon dioxide moves out of lung capillary into alveolar air and out in expiration
•Oxygen moves from alveoli into lung capillaries
•Hemoglobin combines with oxygen, producing oxyhemoglobin

Front 20

Exchange of gases in tissues

Back 20

Oxyhemoglobin breaks down into oxygen and hemoglobin
Oxygen moves out of tissue capillary blood into tissue cells
Carbon dioxide moves from tissue cells into tissue capillary blood
Hemoglobin combines with carbon dioxide, forming carbaminohemoglobin

Front 21

Voluntary Respiration Control

Back 21

Cerebral cortex-voluntary (but limited) control of respiratory activity

Front 22

APNEA

Back 22

• Apnea-stopped respiration

Front 23

TACHYPNEA

Back 23

Tachypnea-abnormally rapid

Front 24

HYPOAPNEA

Back 24

Hypopnea-decreased rate and depth

Front 25

HYPERAPNEA

Back 25

Hyperpnea-increased rate and depth associated with increased activity. abnormally deep and rapid breathing

Front 26

ORTHOPNEA

Back 26

Orthopnea-labored breathing that occurs when lying flat and relieved by sitting up

Front 27

HYPERCANPIA

Back 27

Increased levels of carbondioxide in blood

Front 28

Muscular Wave

Back 28

Peristalsis is a radially symmetrical contraction of muscles which propagates in a wave down the muscular tube.Found in the contraction of smooth muscles to propel contents through the digestive tract

Front 29

Enzymes in Stomach

Back 29

Pepsin enzymes in charge of protein digestion, activated by hydrochloric acid
Rennin: digestion of milk protein

Front 30

Hormones in Stomach

Back 30

Gastrin: promotes stomach secretions and movement
Gastric inhibitor peptide: inhibits gastric juices

Front 31

Enzymes in Small Intestine and what they break down

Back 31

Maltase, Sucrase, Lactase: turn maltose, sucrose and lactose into glucose
Pancreatic Amylase: starches into maltose
Trypsin:Protein Digestion
Peptidases: Protein Digestion
Lipase: Fat
Nuclease: Nucleic Acid

Front 32

Where does majority of digestion and absorption occurs?

Back 32

Small Intestine

Front 33

Chyme vs. Chyle

Back 33

•Chyme: semifluid mass of partly digested food expelled by the stomach into the duodenum.

•Chyle: milky bodily fluid consisting of lymph and emulsified fats

Front 34

Pancreas

Back 34

Pancreatic cells produce pancreatic juices that empty into duodenum
•Pancreatic Islets of Langerhams not connected with pancreatic ducts,
• Reponsible for fat digestion (lipase),
• nucleic acids (nuclease)
• Alkaline content (bicarbonate) neutralized acidic Chyme.
Pancreatic amylase: Startch to maltose

Front 35

Liver

Back 35

Manufacture bile
Modify fats
Store glycogen and when needed convert to glucose
Store vitamins such as iron
Form blood plasma proteins
Destroy old RBC Synthesize urea
Detox
Hepatic Duct: bile leaves liver

Front 36

Gall Bladder

Back 36

• Under liver
• Function is to concentrate and store bile that is produces in liver.
• Cystic duct: duct by which bile enters and leaves the gallbladder

• Common duct: hepatic and cystic ducts together, drains into duodenum

Front 37

Amylase

Back 37

Salivary amylase (enzyme) breaks down starch into maltose

Front 38

Hormone that Stimulates Gastric Secretion?

Back 38

Gastrin: promotes stomach secretions and movement

Front 39

US Dietary Guidelines

Back 39

• Carbohydrates 55-50%
• Fat 30% or less
• Protein 15-20%

Front 40

Heat Loss

Back 40

• Radiation: loss or gain of heat from infrared radiation
• Conduction: tranfer heart from one object to another
• Convection: loss to air over body surface
• Evaporation: loss of body hear to water as is evaporated from body surface

Front 41

Tough Membrane that covers testes

Back 41

• Tunica Albuginea: membrane that covers also divides testis into lobules

Front 42

Testosterone functions

Back 42

•Made by Interstitial cells.( also known as Leydig cells)
•In seminiferous tubules in the testicle.
•LH stimulates production
•“Masculinizes” and promotes development of male accessory organs
•Aids Development of spermatozoa
Secondary sex characteristics

Front 43

Female and male gonad names

Back 43

Male = testes
Female= ovary

Front 44

Menstrual cycle hormones

Back 44

1.FSH- ripens Follicle – which makes estrogen
2.Estrogen builds endometrium, shuts FSH, Sets of LH
3.LH busts follicle releasing egg
4.Cospus Luteum forms, progesterone which inhibits LH

Front 45

Stages of Reproductive Cycle

Back 45

Follicular phase: Lasts from about day 4 to day 14. FSH. follicles begin to mature One follicle becomes dominant-Graafian follicle
Ovulation: About day 14. Surge of LH causes ovum to burst.Ruptured follicle transforms into corpus luteum
Luteal phase:Begins to secrete progesterone and estrogen. Cause endometrium to thicken. FSH and LH inhibited. No fertilization of ovum. Secretion of progesterone decreases. Corpus luteum declines. Endometrium degenerates→menses

Front 46

Uterus linings

Back 46

The myometrium makes up your uterus' second layer. Like the uterus itself, it is made up of muscles



Endometrium innermost lining of the uterus is referred to as the endometrium. It is designe to provide a home and nutrition for your baby. When you are not pregnant, your endometrial lining actually becomes your period

Front 47

Sperm

Back 47

• The sperm cell consists of a head, a midpiece and a tail.
• The head contains the nucleus with genetic material,
• acrosome, which contains enzymes used for penetrating the female egg. It aids in penetration of the ovum.
• The midpiece has a central filamentous core with many mitochondria spiralled around it, used for ATP production for the journey through the female cervix, uterus and uterine tubes.
• The tail or "flagellum" executes the lashing movements that propel the spermatocyte.

Front 48

Progesterone

Back 48

• If the egg is not fertilized, the corpus luteum stops secreting progesterone and decays (after approximately 14 days in humans). Degenerates into a corpus albicans, which is a mass of fibrous scar tissue.
• When egg is fertilized, human chorionic gonadotropin , signals the corpus luteum to continue progesterone secretion, thereby maintaining the thick lining (endometrium) of the uterus and providing an area rich in blood vessels in which the zygote(s) can develop

Front 49

Follicular phase
Ovulation
Luteal phase

Back 49

follicular (pre-ovulatory) phase: the ovarian follicle will undergo a series of transformations (the ovum matures), this is stimulated by the secretion of FSH.
Ovulation:a hole called the stigma will form in the follicle, and the ovum will leave the follicle through this hole. Ovulation is triggered by a spike in the amount of FSH and LH
During the luteal (post-ovulatory) phase, the ovum will travel through the fallopian tubes toward the uterus. If fertilized by a sperm, it may perform implantation there 6–12 days later. Cospus luteum will secrete estrogen and progesterone, LH and FSH go down.

Front 50

Menstrual Cycle

Back 50

Menses:1-5 If the blastocyst does not implant and provide feedback to the body with human cortico gonadotropin [hCG] and continued feedback through pregnancy with placental progesterone and estrogen, the endometrial lining is shed (menstrual cycle)

The proliferative phase (days 5 through 14) is the time after menstruation and before the next ovulation, when the lining of the uterus increases rapidly in thickness and the uterine glands multiply and grow.

The secretory phase (days 14 through 28) is the time after ovulation. When an egg is not fertilized, the corpus luteum gradually disappears, estrogen and progesterone (hormone) levels drop

Front 51

Hormones and Stages

Back 51

Menstrual and Proliferative = Follicular LH and FSH go up

Ovulation LH spikes, FSH goes down

Secretory = luteal
Estrogen and Progesterone go up, LSH and FH goes down

Front 52

Chromosomes in Sex Cells Vs. Regular Cells

Back 52

Regular Cells - 46
Sex Cells 23

Front 53

Corpus luteum

Back 53

The corpus luteum develops from an ovarian follicle during the luteal phase, following the release of a secondary oocyte from the follicle during ovulation.It releases progesterone and estrogen

Front 54

Zygote

Back 54

A zygote is from the union of two gametes, and constitutes the first stage in a unique organism's development. Zygotes are usually produced by a fertilization event between two haploid cells—an ovum from a female and a sperm cell from a male—which combine to form the single diploid cell.

Front 55

Morula

Back 55

solid mass of blastomeres resulting from a number of cleavages of a zygote, or fertilized egg. Its name derives from its resemblance to a mulberry

Front 56

Blastula

Back 56

The blastula (from Greek βλαστός (blastos), meaning "sprout") is an early stage of embryonic development in animals. It is also called blastosphere. It is produced by cleavage of a fertilized ovum and consists of a spherical layer of around 128 cells with a large fluid filled space called the blastocoel in the animal pole of the embryo. The blastula follows the morula and precedes the gastrula

Front 57

Why testes outside of body

Back 57

Temperature regulation

Front 58

Accessory organs female

Back 58

• Oviducts (fallopian tubes)
• Uterus
• Vagina
• Bartholi Glands
• Including those in the breasts
• External genitals

Front 59

Graffian Follicle

Back 59

Tertiary Follicle
• Also known as a Graafian follicle
• A mature ovarian follicle in which the oocyte attains its full size and the surrounding follicular cells are permeated by one or more fluid-filled cavities

Front 60

Stages of Human Embryo

Back 60

Development of the Embryo
• Nervous system begins to form
• Heart and blood vessels originate
• Limb buds form
• In male, primitive testes secrete testosterone
• Human appearance

The Fetus
• month three until birth
• Organs grow and mature
• Ovaries form in female
• Most rapid growth months four to six (second trimester)
•

Front 61

Cause of Menses?

Back 61

when there is no implentation progesterone and estrogen levels decrease

Front 62

Interstitial Cells

Back 62

• Made by Interstitial cells.( also known as Leydig cells
• Found adjacent to the seminiferous tubules in the testicle.
• They produce testosterone in the presence of luteinizing hormone
• “Masculinizes” and promotes development of male accessory organs
• Aids Development of spermatozoa

Front 63

Kidney Functions

Back 63

•Excretes toxins and nitrogenous wastes
•Regulates levels of chemicals in blood
•Acid-base regulation
•Maintains water balance
•Erythropoietin (EPO): Red blood cell production regulation
•Helps regulate blood pressure

Front 64

Nephron Anatomy

Back 64

Renal corpuscle-Bowman’s capsule with its glomerulus
Glomerulus-network of blood capillaries between the afferent and efferent arterioles, surrounded by Bowman’s capsule
Proximal convoluted tubule: coiled part out of glomerular capsule, first segment
Loop of henle (nephron loop) : Descending limb and Ascending limb
Distal convoluted tubule-comes out of ascending limb of loop of Henle
Collecting tubule-straight extension of distal tubule, fluid drains into renal pelvis.

Front 65

URINE FORMATION: FILTRATION

Back 65

More blood enters glomerulous than it actually leaves so pressure is built Glomerular pressure causes water and dissolved substances to filter
Filtration: movement of water and dissolved materials through a membrane under pressure.

Front 66

URINE FORMATION: REABSORPTION

Back 66

As filtrate travels through nephrons tubular system, water and other substances leave the tubule and enter surrounding tissue. Movement of substances out of renal tubules into blood
Water, nutrients, and ions are reabsorbed
Most reabsorption occurs in the proximal convoluted tubule

Front 67

URINE FORMATION: SECRETION

Back 67

Movement of substances into urine
Happens in the distal and collecting tubules
Substances go from blood in peritubular capillaries to distal and collecting tubules

Front 68

ANURIA VS POLYURIA

Back 68

Anuria: no pee
Polyuria: too much pee

Front 69

Retention, supression and incontinence

Back 69

• Urinary retention-urine produced but not voided. Retention of urine may cause cystitis
• Urinary suppression-no urine produced but bladder is normal
• Urinay Incontinence-urine is voided involuntarily. May be caused by spinal injury or stroke

Front 70

Hypoventilation vs Hyperventilation

Back 70

Hypoventilation: Respiratory Acidosis

Hyperventilation: Respiratory Alkalosis