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Front 1

The 6 Basic Components of Science

Back 1

• Understanding a topic and prior research on that topic.
• Develop a research question or theory.
• Developing procedures to answer the question or test the theory.
• Planning for, and then making appropriate empirical observations. • Rationally interpreting the empirical observations.
• Publishing/disseminating findings and interpretations.

Front 2

The 4 Basic Assumptions of Science

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1. A true, physical universe exists.
2. The universe is primarily an orderly system.
3. The principles of this orderly universe can be discovered, particularly through scientific research.
4. Our knowledge of the universe is always incomplete.
a) new knowledge can, and should, alter current ideas and theories. Therefore,
b) all knowledge and theories are tentative.

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Facts

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events that can be directly, empirically, and repeatedly observed.

Front 4

observation

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using our senses to recognize and record facts.

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inference:

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- conclusions derived from facts or other ideas.
- This is also known as “reading between the lines”
- Making generalizations from statistical sample data

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constructs:

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- Non-observable inferred events, that are rationale ideas
constructed by the researcher.
- The constructs are then used as though they are facts.

Front 7

Logical Interpretation Errors in Science

Reification of Constructs

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confusing a construct for a fact.

Front 8

Logical Interpretation Errors in Science

Nominal Fallacy:

Back 8

using a label as an explanation.

Front 9

Logical Interpretation Errors in Science

The All-or-None Bias:

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accepting a theory to be totally true, all the time.

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Logical Interpretation Errors in Science

Similarity-Uniqueness Paradox:

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viewing things only as either similar or dissimilar.

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Logical Interpretation Errors in Science

Barnum Statement:

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stating what should be an obvious fact in what superficially appears to be a scientific way.

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Logical Interpretation Errors in Science

Evaluative Biases of Language:

Back 12

using the wrong word selection to label a result/observation.

Front 13

Errors of Observation

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• Inaccurate observation: Simply wrong about what you think you saw
• Overgeneralization: Correct about what you saw, but apply it too broadly
• Selective observation: Only notice what supports your view
• Illogical Reasoning:
– “Gambler’s fallacy”
– Use systems of logic consciously and explicitly

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Free will vs. social patterns

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-Social constraints on choices (e.g. money, laws)-
-Social effects on choices lead people to want to behave in certain ways

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Goals of Scientific Research



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1) Description. Accurate description of what is actually happening is the bedrock of science.

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Concepts

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• A concept is a word or term that stands for something.
• A concept is a mental image of something. • Examples: book, chair, temperature

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Conceptualization

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• Conceptualization is the process by which we define what we mean by these terms.
• Examples: role, role strain, role clarity, anticipatory socialization, ease of transition into a role

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Proposition

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• A proposition is a statement about the relationships among concepts.
• A proposition specifies the way in which one concept is related to another concept.

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Theory

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• A theory is an interrelated set of propositions.
• A theory is an attempt to explain something. A theory is an answer to a why or how question.

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A Theory Specifies

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• The concepts that are necessary to explain something.
• The ways in which these concepts are interrelated (i.e., the propositions).
• Unit of analysis: individuals or groups or geographical regions or organizations or social artifacts.

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Hypotheses

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• Derivable from theory
• Must be testable
• It’s these hypotheses that we test

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Induction

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Induction is reasoning from the specific to the general = Empirical generalization

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Deduction

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Inductive Approach

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1. Start with a set of research questions
2. Decide how we are going to answer these questions (research design)
3. Make observations (“collect data”)
4. Interpret data
5. Develop a tentative theory answering questions with which we began

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Deductive Approach

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1. Start with a theory (or theories)
2. Derive hypotheses from the theory which should be true if the theory is true
3. Decide how to test these theories (“research design”)
4. Make observations (“collect data”)
5. Interpret data (using statistics)
6. Come to a conclusion about the theory you started with

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Conclusions About Theories

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• Theory is false and should be rejected • Theory is more credible
• Theory should be reformulated

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Eliminating Alternative Theories

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• We can show that a theory is false, but we can’t show that it is true.
• How should we proceed?
• Identify alternative explanations (theories) • Eliminate as many as possible

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Illogic of

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If theory is correct, then X is true. Xis true.
Therefore, theory is correct.

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Illogic of Rejecting Data Because You Reject the Theory

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If theory is correct, then X is true. Theory is false.
Therefore, X is not true.

Front 30

Logic of Falsification

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Logic of Falsification
If theory is correct, then X is true. X is not true.
Therefore, theory is not correct.

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Full Logic of Hypothesis Testing

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Research Syllogism
I f A causes B {theory}
And if X measures/indicates A
{measurement assumption}
And if Y measures/indicates B {measurement assumption}
Then X will be statistically associated with Y {prediction}

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What is a human subject?

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• A human subject is a living individual about whom an investigator obtains...
– data through interaction
– data gathered through physical procedures, manipulations of the subject, or manipulations of the subject’s environment.
– identifiable private information

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What is an institutional review board?

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• An IRB is an administrative body established to protect the rights and welfare of human participants in research conducted under the auspices of an institution.
– Most universities have several IRBs, including a behavior/social sciences board.
– IRBs have 5 or more members, qualified through experience and expertise.
– Composition of IRB must be sensitive to race and gender concerns, and must include at least one member not otherwise affiliated with the institution.

Front 34

What should be in an informed consent statement?

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• Certain information must be provided to prospective research participants. (All in 8th grade English.)
– a statement of the purposes of the research, the duration of the research, and the procedures of the research.
– a description of risks and benefits, including specific terms of compensation.
– a description of alternate procedures or treatments, if any.
– a description of the confidentiality of records
– if the subject is harmed, a description of how those costs will be dealt with.
– an explanation of whom to contact for additional information
– a statement regarding the subject’s rights.
• The informed consent statement MAY NOT contain exculpatory language (no release from liability).

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7 points to guide research

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-Anonymity: no one knows the identity -Autonomy: freedom to make choices -Beneficence: Do no harm
-Confidentiality: identity (if necessary to have) is
kept secret
-Informed Consent: voluntary agreement
-Privacy: participant’s control over sharing oneself
-Voluntariness: right to be free from coercion, duress, or undue inducement.

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Two major phases of Research Planning:

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1. Planning Phase = defining focus of research and developing research plan
2. Execution Phase = implementation and monitoring success of research plan

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iterative process

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Planning research is iterative process
• Research plan constantly being updated throughout development and implementation
• Emphasize both "rational and experimental principles" or methodology

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Credibility

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validity of design to support conclusions

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Utility

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design will address specific questions of interest

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Feasibility

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research design and plan are reasonable given time and resource constraints

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DESCRIPTIVE QUESTIONS

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• examine what happened, meaning, interpretation
• What is actor X’s view of the world?
• History, anthropology, journalism provide exemplars. Generalization usually not a key issue. In contrast, sociology is more concerned with explanation rather than (mere) description.
• Post-structuralism: the instability of meaning.

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ONTOLOGICAL QUESTIONS

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• deal with the issue of existence, the nature of things.
• What is X? Why does X exist?
• (e.g. What is trust, strategy, a relationship, knowledge, leadership, a decision, an industry, the nature of competition, a theory, etc... )

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TAXONOMICAL QUESTIONS

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• seek classifications, categorizations, taxonomies
• Taxonomy is the division into classifications or groups.
• Can we classify concepts like love, trust?

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RELATIONAL QUESTIONS

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• seek to identify the relationship between constructs
• What is the relationship between X and Y? • How are events or constructs correlated

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CAUSAL QUESTIONS

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seek explanations
• What causes what? e.g. Why are nations good at certain activities? What motivates workers? Will a change in one social structure cause a change in another?
• y = f(x) y: dependent variable; x: independent variable.
• Must show that x causes y (and not that they are merely related).
• Arguably impossible.

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NORMATIVE QUESTIONS

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• have a value-laden dependent variable
• Why? e.g. Why do workers leave organizations? Why do people follow trends?
• Explanation => prescription.
• Based on medicine, natural science.
• Often not worried about how the prescription works as long as it does.

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PROCESSUAL QUESTIONS

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• seek to explain how things come to be
• How?
• (e.g. How are decisions made? How do organizations change? How do relationships evolve? How do actors control other actors? How is knowledge constructed? How do firms compete?)
• Dynamic, focus on change

Front 48

Model of Planning Phase

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A. Research Definition Stage (I)
• Understand the Problem
• Identify Questions (Hypothesize)
B. Research Design\Plan Stage (II) • Choose Design
• Data Collection Approaches

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STAGE 1: RESEARCH DEFINITION

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Understand the Problem
Identify Questions
Refine/Revise Questions



Front 50

STAGE 2: RESEARCH PLAN/DESIGN

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STAGE 2: RESEARCH PLAN/DESIGN

Choose Design
Determine Trade-offs     
 Inventory Resources
Assess Feasibility




Front 51

Key Elements of Research Design: 1

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1. Operational definitions of variables of interest

• Detailed description of important variables
• A definition in terms of exact operations that will be used to manipulate or measure each variable

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Key Elements of Research Design: 2

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2. Identification of what comparisons will be made

• Specification of relations between variables
• Order of relations (Correlations)

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Key Elements of Research Design: 3

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3. Specification of level of analysis

• Individual or aggregate data collection\analysis
• Implications for data collection, analyses, prediction, generalizability, and explanation

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Key Elements of Research Design: 4

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4. Representativeness of sampling

• Populational, geographic, and temporal generalizability
• Identification and selection of sampling strategy

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Key Elements of Research Design: 5

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5. Determine level of precision of results

• Rigor of design and measures affects how precise answers to research questions will be
• Size of sample also affects statistical power

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Sampling Frame

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The list or procedure defining the POPULATION. (From which the sample will be drawn.)

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Probability Samples

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A probability sample is one in which each element of the population has a known non-zero probability of selection.

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Simple Random Sampling

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Each element in the population has an equal probability of selection AND each combination of elements has an equal probability of selection

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Stratified Random Sampling

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Divide population into groups that differ in important ways

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Stratified Random Sampling-2

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Probabilities of selection may be different for different groups, as long as they are known

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Systematic Random Sampling

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Each element has an equal probability of selection, but combinations of elements have different probabilities.

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Multi-stage Probability Samples

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Large national probability samples involve several stages of stratified cluster sampling

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Multi-stage Probability Samples

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Within each sampled area, the clusters are defined, and the process is repeated, perhaps several times, until blocks or telephone exchanges are selected

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Sampling Frame is Crucial in Probability Sampling

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If the sampling frame is a poor fit to the population of interest, random sampling from that frame cannot fix the problem

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Convenience Sample

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Subjects selected because it is easy to access them.

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Purposive Samples

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Quota Sampling

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Pre-plan number of subjects in specified categories (e.g. 100 men, 100 women)

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Sample Size

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Heterogeneity: need larger sample to study more diverse population

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Snowball Sampling

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-Begin by identifying someone who meets the
criteria for inclusion in your study.
-Then ask them to recommend others who they may know who also meet the criteria
-especially useful when you are trying to reach populations that are inaccessible or hard to find (e.g., homeless)

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Quota Vs Stratified Sampling

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In Stratified Sampling, selection of subject is random. Call-backs are used to get that particular subject.

Front 71

Design of Survey\Questionnaire Instrument

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• As with research plan in general, survey design is an iterative process
• Ask self series of questions:

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1. What do you need to know?

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• Based on hypotheses identified in Stage I of Research Planning Model
• Most important question researcher can ask before begin writing
• Survey-type instruments can yield three types of information

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2. How will administration be accomplished?

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A. Self-administered surveys - subject responds to printed questions (e.g., group or mail surveys)

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•Advantages

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• Ask questions with long, complex or visual response categories
• Ask batteries of similar questions
• Respondent does not share answers with immediate person

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•Disadvantages

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• Careful questionnaire design is required
• Open response questions not useful
• Good reading and writing skills by respondent

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3. What type of population are you sampling?

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• Very important consideration before one begins to write questions
• Consider number of qualities respondents possess:

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4. What type of response format is appropriate (for each question)?

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A. Open-ended Questions - permits subject freedom to answer question in own words (without pre-specified alternatives

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Open ended questions- Advantages

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•Advantages
• Obtain unanticipated answers
• May better reflect respondents thoughts\beliefs
• Appropriate when list of possible answers is excessive

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Open Ended Questions- Disadvantages

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•Disadvantages
• Flexibility in responses difficult to code and analyze
• Provide incomplete or unintelligible answers

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B. Close-ended Questions

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subject selects from list of pre-determined, acceptable responses

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Types of closed-ended questions

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1. Checklists - respondent selects certain number of pre-specified categories (nominal data)
2. Two-way (Forced Choice) - respondent must select between two alternatives (crude ordinal\nominal)
3. Ranked - respondent must place items in order of importance or value (ordinal)
4. Multiple-Choice (Likert) - respondent selects between range of alternatives along pre-specified continuum (ordinal\interval?)

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Advantages of Closed-ended Questions

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• Obtain more reliable answers
• Meaning of responses more meaningful to researcher
• Straight-forward analysis

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Disadvantages of Closed-ended Questions

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• Answers relative to response scale provided
• Respondent's choice not among listed alternatives
• Choices listed communicate kind of response wanted

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Writing good survey questions

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• Differences in answers should stem from differences among respondents rather than differences in the stimuli
• Question's wording is obviously a central part of the stimulus

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1. Simple sentences

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• No double negatives
• Eliminate vagueness (poorly defined terms)
• Objectionable\Irrelevant questions

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2. Discrete questions\responses

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• No double-barrel questions
• Balanced questions\responses
• Exhaustive\mutually exclusive categories

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3. Limit response format (7±2)

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• Even vs. Odd categories
• Allow expression of variability

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4. Match response to item

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• Frequency (Never-All the time)
• Likert Scaling (Disagree-Agree)
• Quality (Poor-Excellent)
• Service (Not Well-Extremely Well)

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5. Overall Format

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• General to specific order of questions
• Employ "filtering" questions (If “Yes”)
• Mix question\response types to remove response bias
• Minimize judgment and emphasize accuracy (social desirability)

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Design of Observational Instrument

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• As with research plan in general, survey design is an iterative process
• Ask self series of questions:

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1. What do you need to know?

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• Based on hypotheses identified in Stage I of Research Planning Model
• Most important question researcher can ask
• Have to be selective: Can’t observe everything

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2. How will observation be accomplished?

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• Variably intrusive: How far intrude?
• From what vantage point do make observations?

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A. Secret Outsider (complete observer)

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• Distant observer unknown to participants in natural setting
• Non-intrusive
• Major Disadvantage: Removed from the immediacy of the action

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B. Recognized Outsider (observer participant)

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• Firsthand observer made known to participants
• Intrusive: Hawthorne effect

• Effect of known observation: increase performance
• Minimize Hawthorne effect by adapting to presence
• Major Disadvantage: Recognized authority affiliation

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C. Marginal Participant (participant observer)

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• Adopt position of commonly accepted and unimportant participant
• Non-intrusive as long as subjects unaware of being observed
• Choice of clothes\objects carried • Physical posturing

• Major Disadvantage: Familiarity
with situation influences what data is recorded

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D. Full Participant (complete participant)

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• Adopt position of central importance in situation
• Intrusive if not perceived as resident or fail to meet membership criteria
• Major Disadvantage: Ability to unintentionally change others behavior

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3.What type of population are you sampling?

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A. Access to subjects' behavior
B. Amount of activity
C. Awareness of being observed

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4. How will observation be recorded?

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• Recording devices depend upon:
• Detail required of information gathered
• Amount previously known (exploratory vs. confirmatory)

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A. Notation

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• Recording behavior in verbal or diagrammatic notes
• Decide what to record and what to overlook on the spot
• Write as much as possible as event occurs (steno mask)

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B. Pre-coded Checklists

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• Select from series of pre-coded checklists
• Decide important information beforehand (participant characteristics, place, time, situational characteristics)
• Requires previous diagnostic evaluation

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C. Maps

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• Recording of activity on floor plans, diagrams or maps
• Convenient to record behavior of several people in one general area at
the same time
• Useful to record sequences of behavior

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D. Photographs\Videotape

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• Accurate recording of behavior
• Record only what expect (direction of lens, focus, other noises)
• Requires additional observation of images captured

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•What to observe?

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• Actor (Who is?)
• Act (doing What?)
• Significant others (with Whom?)
• Relationships (in what Relationship?)
• Sociocultural context (in what Context?) • Physical setting (Where?)
• Time (Across what times?)

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•Actor

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• Identify populations of interest
• Identify characteristics of interest
• Level of analysis (individual or group)

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•Act

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• Decide on level of abstraction (molar vs molecular)
• How distinguish between individual acts from connected sequence of acts (episode)

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•Significant Others

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• Acts partly defined by how other people are or are not included as
participants
• Influence of presence and absence

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•Relationships

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• Connections and separations between people
• Meaningfulness of relationships among participants

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•Context

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• Situational and cultural contexts
• Reactions under variety of conditions

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•Time

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• Time scale of observation vs time scale of behavior
• Important element to be sampled

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•Physical Situations

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• Environment as influence of behavior
• Rules that reflect in behavior based on surrounding environment

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•Observing Physical Traces

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• Systematically looking at physical surroundings to find reflections of previous activity
• Purposive and unintentional behaviors

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•Inferences:

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• How environment acquired its current state
• How people actually use space
• How people feel toward surroundings
• How environment meets needs of users