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182 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
What is preoperational intelligence?
PREOPERATIONAL INTELLIGENCE

Piaget's term for cognitive development between the ages of about 2 and 6; it includes language and imagination (which involve symbolic thought), but logical, operational thinking is not yet possible.
What is centration?
CENTRATION

A characteristic of preoperational thought in which a young child focuses (centers) on one idea, excluding all others.
What is egocentrism?
EGOCENTRISM

Piaget's term for children's tendency to think about the world entirely from their own personal perspective.
What is focus on appearance?
FOCUS ON APPEARANCE

A characteristic of preoperational thought in which a young child ignores all attributes that are not apparent.
What is static reasoning?
STATIC REASONING

A characteristic of preoperational thought in which a young child thinks that nothing changes. Whatever is now has always been and always will be.
What is irreversibility?
IRREVERSIBILITY

A characteristic of preoperational thought in which a young child thinks that nothing can be undone. A thing cannot be restored to the way it was before a change occurred.
What is conservation?
CONVERSION

The principle that the amount of a substance remains the same (i.e., is conserved) when its appearance changes.
What is animism?
ANIMISM

The belief that natural objects and phenomena are alive.
What is apprentice in thinking?
APPRENTICE IN THINKING

Vygotsky's term for a person whose cognition is stimulated and directed by older and more skilled members of society.
What is guided participation ?
GUIDED PARTICIPATION

The process by which people learn from others who guide their experiences and explorations.
What is zone of proximal development?
ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (ZPD)

Vygotsky's term for the skills—cognitive as well as physical—that a person can exercise only with assistance, not yet independently.
What is scaffolding?
SCAFFOLDING

Temporary support that is taiored to a learner's needs and abilities and aimed at helping the learner master the next task in a given learning process.
What is private speech?
PRIVATE SPEECH

The internal dialogue that occurs when people talk to themselves (either silently or out loud).
What is social mediation ?
SOCIAL MEDIATION

Human interaction that expands and advances understanding, often through words that one person uses to explain something to another.
What is theory-theory?
THEORY- THEORY

The idea that children attempt to explain everything they see and hear by constructing theories.
What is theory of mind?
THEORY OF MIND

A person's theory of what other people might be thinking. In order to have a theory of mind, children must realize that other people are not necessarily thinking the same thoughts that they themselves are. That realization is seldom possible before age 4.
What is fast-mapping ?
FAST -MAPPING

The speedy and sometimes imprecise way in which children learn new words by tentatively placing them in men¬ tal categories according to their perceived meaning.
What is fast-mapping ?
FAST MAPPING

The speedy and sometimes imprecise way in which children learn new words by tentatively placing them in mental categories according to their perceived meaning.
What is overregularization ?
OVERREGULARIZATION

The application of rules of grammar even when exceptions occur, making the language seem more "regular" than it actually is.
What is a balanced bilingual ?
BALANCED BILINGUAL

A person who is fluent in two languages, not favoring one over the other.
Sum up development of children Age 2- 6?
Children aged 2 to 6 have impressive linguistic talents. They explode into speech, from about a hundred words to many thousands, from halting baby talk to fluency. Fastmapping and grammar are among the sophisticated devices they use, although both can backfire. No other time in the entire life span is as sensitive to language learning, especially to mastering pronunciation. Children can readily learn two languages during these years. Extensive exposure to both languages is necessary for a child to become a balanced bilingual.
What is Montessori schools ?
MONTESSORI SCHOOLS

Schools that offer earlychildhood education based on the philosophy of Maria Montessori, which emphasizes careful work and tasks that each young child can do.
What is Reggio Emilia approach ?
REGGIO EMILIA APPROACH

A famous program of early-childhood education that originated in the town of Reggio Emilia, Italy, and that encourages each child's creativity in a carefully designed setting.
Sum up research for chapter 9.
Research, particularly on preschool programs for children in low-income families, has proved that high-quality early education benefits children, who improve in language, in social skills, and in prospects for the future (Clarke-Stewart & Allhusen, 2005). Many different programs, including child-centered (Montessori and Reggio Emilia) and teacher-directed programs, are available—although sometimes good programs are very expensive. Nations, states, and parents differ in what they seek from early education for their children, and programs vary in teacher preparation, curriculum, physical space, and child/adult ratios.
Sum up Piaget and Vgotsky 1?
1. Piaget stressed the egocentric and illogical aspects of thought during the play years. He called this stage preoperational thought because young children often cannot yet use logical operations to think about their observations and experiences.
Sum up Piaget and Vgotsky 2?
2. Young children, according to Piaget, sometimes focus on only one thing (centration) and see things only from their own view¬ point (egocentrism), remaining stuck on appearances and on current reality. They may believe that living spirits reside in inanimate objects, a belief called animism.
Sum up Piaget and Vgotsky 3?
3. Vygotsky stressed the social aspects of childhood cognition, noting that children learn by participating in various experiences, guided by more knowledgeable adults or peers. That guidance assists learning within the zone of proximal development, which encompasses the knowledge and skills that the child has the potential to learn.
Sum up Piaget and Vgotsky 4?
4. According to Vygotsky, the best teachers use various hints, guidelines, and other tools to provide the child with a scaffold for new learning. Language is a bridge that provides social mediation between the knowledge that the child already has and the learning that the society hopes to impart. For Vygotsky, words are a tool for learning.
Sum up Children's Theories 5?
5. Children develop theories, especially to explain the purpose of life and their role in it. Among these theories is theory of mind— an understanding of what others may be thinking. Notable advances in theory of mind occur at around age 4. Theory of mind is partly the result of brain maturation, but a child's language and experiences (in the family and community) also have an impact.
Sum up Language 6?
6. Language develops rapidly during early childhood, which is a sensitive period but not a critical one for language learning. Vocabulary increases dramatically, with thousands of words added between ages 2 and 6. In addition, basic grammar is mastered.
Sum up Language 7?
7. Many children learn to speak more than one language, gaining cognitive as well as social advantages. Ideally, children become balanced bilinguals, equally proficient in two languages, by age 6.
Sum up Early-Childhood Education 8?
8. Organized educational programs during early childhood advance cognitive and social skills, although specifics vary a great deal. Montessori and Reggio Emilia are two child-centered programs that began in Italy and now are offered in many nations. Behaviorist principles led to many specific practices of teacherdirected programs.
Sum up Early- Childhood Education 9?
9. Head Start is a government program that generally helps lowincome children. Longitudinal research on intervention programs has demonstrated that early-childhood education reduces the likelihood of later problems. Graduates of these programs are less likely to need special education and more likely to become lawabiding, gainfully employed adults, which makes preschool education a wise investment.
Sum up Early- Childhood Education 10?
10. Although many types of preschool programs are successful, the quality of early education matters. Children learn best if there is a clear curriculum and if the child/adult ratio is low. The training and continuity of early-childhood teachers are also important.
What is Emotional Development ?
EMOTIONAL REGULATION

The ability to control when and how emotions are expressed.
What is initiative versus guilt ?
INITIATIVE VERSUS GUILT

Erikson's third psychosocial crisis, in which children undertake new skills and activities and feel guilty when they do not succeed at them.
What is self-esteem ?
SELF ESTEEM

A person's evaluation of his or her own worth, either in specifics (e.g., intelligence, attractiveness) or overall.
What is self-concept ?
SELF- CONCEPT

A person's understanding of who he or she is, in relation to self-esteem, appearance, personality, and various traits.
What is intrinsic motivation ?
INTRINSIC MOTIVATION

A drive, or reason to pursue a goal, that comes from inside a person, such as the need to feel smart or competent.
What is extrinsic motivation?
EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION

A drive, or reason to pursue a goal, that arises from the need to have one's achievements rewarded from outside, perhaps by receiving material possessions or another person's esteem.
What is psychopathology ?
PSYCHOPATHOLOGY

An illness or disorder of the mind.
What is externalizing problems ?
EXTERNALIZING PROBLEMS

Difficulty with emotional regulation that involves expressing powerful feelings through uncontrolled physical or verbal outbursts, as by lashing out at other people or breaking things.
What is rough-and-tumble play ?
ROUGH AND TUMBLE PLAY

Play that mimics aggression through wrestling, chasing, or hitting, but in which there is no intent to harm.
What is sociodramatic play ?
SOCIODRAMATIC PLAY

Pretend play in which children act out various roles and themes in stories that they create.
Sum up playing with other children?
Playing with other children is a boon for children's emotional regulation, as they learn how to get along with each other. Many forms of play, including rough-and-tumble play and sociodramatic play, require social understanding and compromise. Although play is universal, the particular forms it takes vary by gender and culture.
What is authoritarian parenting?
AUTHORITARIAN PARENTING

An approach to child rearing that is characterized by high behavioral standards, strict punishment of misconduct, and little communication.
What is permissive parenting ?
PERMISSIVE PARENTING

An approach to child rearing that is characterized by high nurturance and communication but little discipline, guidance, or control.
What is authoritative parenting ?
AUTHORITATIVE PARENTING

An approach to child rearing in which the parents set limits but listen to the child and are flexible.
What is neglectful/uninvolved parenting?
NEGLECTFUL/ UNINVOLVED PARENTING

An approach to child rearing in which the parents are indifferent toward their children and unaware of what is going on in their children's lives.
Sum up parenting?
Over the past 40 years, Diana Baumrind and most other developmentalists have found that authoritative parenting (warm, with guidance) is more effective than either authori¬ tarian (very strict) or permissive (very lenient) parenting. Other researchers have found that uninvolved parents are the least effective of all. In any culture, children thrive when their parents appreciate them and care about their accomplishments. The children of parents who are uninvolved, uncaring, or abusive seldom become happy, well-adjusted, and high-achieving adults.
Good parenting is not achieved by following any one simple rule; children's temperaments vary, and so do cultural patterns. The media pose a particular challenge worldwide because children are attracted to colorful, fast-paced images; yet violent TV programs, in particular, lead to more aggressive behavior. Parental monitoring and limits on children's exposure to TV, accompanied by more face-to-face interaction, are recommended by every expert.
What is empathy ?
EMPATHY

The ability to understand the emotions and concerns of another person, especially when they differ from one's own.
What is antipathy ?
ANTIPATHY

Feelings of dislike or even hatred for another person.
What is prosocial behavior ?
PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR

Feelings and actions that are helpful and kind but are of no obvious benefit to oneself.
What is antisocial behavior ?
ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR

Feelings and actions that are deliberately hurtful or destructive to another person.
What is instrumental aggression ?
INSTRUMENTAL AGGRESSION

Hurtful behavior that is intended to get or keep something that another person has.
What is reactive aggression ?
REACTIVE AGGRESSION

An impulsive retaliation for another person's intentional or accidental action, verbal or physical.
What is relational aggression ?
RELATION AGGRSSION

Nonphysical acts, such as insults or social rejection, aimed at harming the social connection between the victim and other people.
What is bullying aggression ?
BULLYING AGGRESSION

Unprovoked, repeated physical or verbal attack, especially on victims who are unlikely to defend them¬ selves.
What is psychological control ?
PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTROL

A disciplinary technique that involves threatening to withdraw love and support and that relies on a child's feelings of guilt and gratitude to the parents.
What is time-out ?
TIME OUT

A disciplinary technique in which a child is separated from other people for a specified time.
Sum up moral development.
Moral development occurs throughout childhood and adolescence. During early childhood, the most powerful moral lessons are learned from other children, particularly the need to be appropriately prosocial and antisocial, with aggression controlled. Ideally, children learn to be good friends to each other, particularly avoiding unprovoked aggres¬ sion. Parents discipline their children in many ways, with each method teaching lessons about right and wrong. Induction seems most likely to lead to internalized standards of morality.
What is sex differences?
SEX DIFFERENCES

Biological differences between males and females, in organs, hormones, and body type.
What is gender differences ?
GENDER DIFFERENCES

Differences in the roles and behavior of males and females that are prescribed by the culture.
What is phallic stage ?
PHALLIC STAGE

Freud's third stage of development, when the penis becomes the focus of concern and pleasure.
What is Oedipus complex ?
OEDIPUS COMPLEX

The unconscious desire of young boys to replace their father and win their mother's exclusive love.
What is superego ?
SUPEREGO

In psychoanalytic theory, the judgmental part of the personality that internalizes the moral standards of the parents.
What is Electra complex ?
ELECTRA COMPLEX

The unconscious desire of girls to replace their mother and win their father's exclusive love.
What is identification ?
IDENTIFICATION

An attempt to defend one's self-concept by taking on the behaviors and attitudes of someone else.
What is gender schema ?
GENDER SCHEMA

A cognitive concept or general belief based on one's experiences—in this case, a child's understanding of sex differences.
Sum up gender identity.
Young boys and girls are seen as quite different, not only by parents and other adults but especially by the children themselves. Gender stereotypes are held most forcefully at about age 6. Each of the five major theories has an explanation for this phenomenon: Freud describes unconscious incestuous urges; behaviorists highlight social reinforcement; cognitive theorists describe immature categorization; sociocultural explanations focus on cultural patterns; and epigenetic theory begins with hormonal differences affecting the brain. Although each of the theories offers an explanation, they do not agree. A dynamic-systems approach recognizes that genes and culture, parents and peers, ideas and customs all interact, affecting each child. Perhaps an eclectic approach, considering all five theories, is needed to understand sex and gender differences.
Sum up Emotional Development 1?
1. Regulation of emotions is crucial during the play years, when children learn emotional control. Emotional regulation is made possible by maturation of the brain, particularly of the prefrontal cortex, as well as by experiences with parents and peers.
Sum up Emotional Development 2?
2. In Erikson's psychosocial theory, the crisis of initiative versus guilt occurs during early childhood. Children normally feel pride and self-esteem, sometimes mixed with feelings of guilt. Shame is also evident, particularly in some cultures.
Sum up Emotional Development 3?
3. Children are usually internally motivated to try new things during these years. Their high self-esteem makes them proud and adventuresome.
Sum up Emotional Development 4?
4. Both externalizing and internalizing problems indicate impaired self-control. Many severe emotional problems that indicate psychopathology are first evident during these years.
Sum up Emotional Development 5.
5. Boys more often manifest externalizing behaviors and girls internalizing behaviors. For both sexes, brain maturation and the quality of early caregiving affect emotional control.
Sum up play 6.
6. All young children enjoy playing—with other children of the same sex, if possible, alone or with parents if not.
Sum up play 7.
7. The specifics of play vary by setting and culture. In contemporary cities, most children's social plav occurs in dav-care centers.
Sum up play 8.
8. Boys are particularly likely to engage in rough-and-tumble play, learning social skills without hurting each other. Both sexes engage in dramatic play, with girls preferring more domestic, less violent themes.
Primary bone tumor (adult)
Multiple myeloma, Children Osteosarcoma, Benign Osteochondroma
Sum up Challenges of Parents 10.
10. Children are prime consumers of many kinds of media, usually for several hours a day, often without their parents' involvement. Content is crucial. The themes and characters of many television programs can lead to increased aggression, as shown by longitudinal research.
Sum up moral development 11.
11. The sense of self and the social awareness of the young child become the foundation for morality. This is evident in both prosocial and antisocial behavior.
Sum up moral development 12.
12. Children develop standards for aggression. Unprovoked injury (bullying) is considered wrong by children as well as by adults.
Sum up moral development 13.
13. Parents' choice of punishment can have long-term consequences. Physical punishment may teach lessons that parents do not want their children to learn. Other forms of punishment have long-term consequences as well.
Sum up Becoming Boys and Girls 14.
14. Even 2-year-olds correctly use sex-specific labels, and young children become aware of gender differences in clothes, toys, fu¬ ture careers, and playmates. Gender stereotypes, favoritism, and segregation peak at about age 6.
Sum up Becoming Boys and Girls 15.
15. Freud emphasized that children are attracted to the oppositesex parent and eventually seek to identify, or align themselves, with the same-sex parent. Behaviorists hold that gender-related behaviors are learned through reinforcement and punishment (especially for males) and social modeling.
Sum up Becoming Boys and Girls 16.
16. Cognitive theorists note that simplistic preoperational thinking leads to gender schema and therefore stereotypes. Sociocultural theorists point to the many male-female distinctions that are apparent in every society and are taught to children.
Sum up Becoming Boys and Girls 17.
17. An epigenetic explanation notes that some sex differences result from hormones affecting brain formation. Experiences enhance or halt those neurological patterns.
Sum up Becoming Boys and Girls 18.
18. Thus each theory has an explanation for the sex and gender differences that are apparent everywhere. Parents need to decide which differences are useful to encourage and which are destructive.
Sum up early childhood so far starting with Biosocial Body Changes in Children 1 ?
1. Body Changes

Children continue to grow from ages 2 to 6, but their rate of growth slows down. Normally the BMI (body mass index) is lower at about age 5 than at any other time of life. Children often become more discriminating eaters, eating too much unhealthy food and refusing to eat certain other foods altogether.
Sum up early childhood so far starting with Biosocial Brain Development Children 2?
2. Brain Development

Both the proliferation of neural pathways and myelination continue. Specific parts of the brain (including the corpus callosum, prefrontal cortex, amygdala, hippocampus, and hypothalamus) begin to connect, allowing lateralization and coordination of left and right as well as less impulsivity and perseveration. Fine motor skills, such as drawing, develop more slowly. Advances in the limbic system allow emotional control.
Sum up early childhood so far starting with Biosocial Injuries and Maltreatment 3?
3. Injuries and Maltreatment

Injury control and prevention of maltreatment are crucial, since far more children worldwide are harmed by avoidable accidents or deliberate abuse than by disease. Prevention requires that risk factors be reduced (secondary prevention) and that social changes make neglect and abuse less likely (primary prevention).
Sum up early childhood so far starting with Cognitive Piaget and Vygotsky Piaget 4?
4. Piaget and Vygotsky Piaget

stressed the young child's egocentric, illogical perspective, which prevents the child from grasping concepts such as conservation. Vygotsky stressed the cultural context, noting that children learn extensively from others. Many children develop their own theories, including a theory of mind, as they realize that not everyone thinks as they do.
Sum up early childhood so far starting with Cognitive Language 5?
5. Language

Language abilities develop rapidly. By age 6, the average child knows 10,000 words and demonstrates extensive grammatical knowledge. Young children are quite capable of becoming balanced bilinguals if their social context is encouraging.
Sum up early childhood so far starting with Cognitive Early Childhood Education 6.
6. Early Childhood Education

Young children are avid learners. Child-centered, teacherdirected, and intervention programs can all succeed.
Sum up early childhood so far starting with psychosocial Emotional Development 7.
7. Emotional Development

Self-esteem is usually high during early childhood. In Erikson's stage of initiative versus guilt, self-concept emerges, as does the ability to regulate emotions. Externalizing and internalizing problems signal the need to prevent later psychopathology.
Sum up early childhood so far starting with psychosocial Challenges for Parents 8.
8. Challenges for Parents

Parenting styles that are warm and responsive, with much communication, are most effective in encouraging the child's self-esteem, autonomy, and self-control. Parental guidelines are needed, as is discipline. However, punishment may have long-term consequences.
Sum up early childhood so far starting with psychosocial Moral Development 9.
9. Moral Development

Empathy produces prosocial behavior; antipathy leads to antisocial actions. Aggression takes many forms; instrumental aggression is quite normal; bullying aggression is ominous.
Sum up early childhood so far starting with psychosocial Becoming Boys and Girls 10.
10. Becoming Boys and Girls

Children develop stereotypic concepts of sex differences (biological) and gender differences (cultural). The five major theories give contradictory explanations of nature and nurture, but all agree that sex and gender identities become increasingly salient to young children.
What is middle childhood ?
MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

The period between early childhood and early adolescence, approxi¬ mately from ages 7 to 11.
Sum up school age children.
School-age children are usually healthy, strong, and capable. Immunizations during early childhood protect them against contagious diseases, medical care has improved, and developmental advances give them sufficient strength and coordination to take care of their own basic needs (eating, dressing, bathing). Health habits provide a foundation for health status in adulthood. Exercise is crucial, a source of joy and learning for school-age children. However, many children do not get the safe, active play or the ongoing care that they need. Neighborhood play, school physical education, and community sports leagues are all possible settings for the activity that children need, but none reaches all those who would benefit.
What is BMI (body mass index) ?
BMI (BODY MASS INDEX)

A person's weight in kilograms divided by the square of height in meters.
What is overweight?
OVERWEIGHT

In an adult, having a BMI of 25 to 29. In a child, having a BMI above the 85th percentile, according to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control's 1980 standards for children of a given age.
What is obesity ?
OBESITY

In an adult, having a BMI of 30 or more. In a child, having a BMI above the 95th percentile, according to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control's 1980 standards for children of a given age.
What is asthma ?
ASTHMA

A chronic disease of the respiratory system in which inflammation narrows the airways from the nose and mouth to the lungs, causing difficulty in breathing. Signs and symptoms include wheezing, shortness of breath, chest tightness, and coughing.
What is reaction time ?
REACTION TIME

The time it takes to respond to a stimulus, either physically (with a reflexive movement such as an eye blink) or cognitively (with a thought).
What is selective attention ?
SELECTIVE ATTENTION

The ability to concentrate on some stimuli while ignoring others.
What is automatization ?
AUTOMIZATION

A process in which repetition of a sequence of thoughts and actions makes the sequence routine, so that it no longer requires conscious thought.
What is aptitude ?
APTITUDE

The potential to master a specific skill or to learn a certain body of knowledge.
What is IQ test ?
IQ TEST

A test designed to measure intellectual aptitude, or ability to learn in school. Originally, intelligence was defined as mental age divided by chronological age, times 100—hence the term intelligence quotient, or IQ.
What is achievement test ?
ACHIEVEMENT TEST

A measure of mastery or proficiency in reading, mathematics, writing, science, or some other subject.
What is Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) ?
WECHSLER INTELLIGENCE SCALE FOR CHILDREN (WISC)

An IQ test designed for schoolage children. The test assesses potential in many areas, including vocabulary, general knowledge, memory, and spatial comprehension.
What is Flynn effect ?
FLYNN EFFECT

The rise in average IQ scores that has occurred over the decades in many nations.
What is mental retardation ?
MENTAL RETARDATION

Literally, slow, or late, thinking. In practice, people are considered mentally retarded if they score below 70 on an IQ test and if they are markedly behind their peers in adaptation to daily life.
Sum up neural maturation and intelligence.
During middle childhood, neurological maturation allows faster, more automatic reactions. Selective attention enables focused concentration in school and in play. Aptitude tests, including IQ tests, compare mental age to chronological age. Actual learning is measured by achievement tests. Determining who is gifted and who is retarded may be useful for educators, but IQ scores change much more than was originally imagined. Adaptation to circumstances is crucial, as is culture. The concept that an IQ score measures an underlying aptitude (g) is challenged by Robert Sternberg, Howard Gardner, and others, who believe that the brain contains not just one aptitude but many.
What is children with special needs ?
CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL NEEDS

Children who, because of a physical or mental disability, require extra help in order to learn.
What is developmental psychopathology ?
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOPATHOLOGY

The field that uses insights into typical development to understand and remediate developmental disorders, and vice versa.
What is Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR) ?
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR)

The American Psychiatric Association's official guide to the diagnosis (not treatment) of mental disorders. {IV-TR means "fourth edition, text revision.")
What is attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) ?
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

A condition in which a person not only has great difficulty concentrating for more than a few moments but also is inattentive, impulsive, and overactive.
What is comorbidity ?
COMORBIDITY

The presence of two or more unrelated disease conditions at the same time in the same person.
What is learning disability?
LEARNING DISABILITY

A marked delay in a particular area of learning that is not caused by an apparent physical disability, by mental retardation, or by an unusually stressful home environment.
What is dyslexia ?
DYSLEXIA

Unusual difficulty with reading; thought to be the result of some neurological underdevelopment.
What is autism ?
AUTISM

A developmental disorder marked by an inability to relate to other people normally, extreme self-absorption, and an inability to acquire normal speech.
What is autistic spectrum disorder ?
AUTISTIC SPECTRUM DISORDER

Any of several disorders characterized by inadequate social skills, impaired communication, and unusual play.
What is Asperger syndrome?
ASPERGER SYNDROME

A specific type of autistic spectrum disorder, characterized by extreme attention to details and deficient social understanding.
What is individual education plan (IEP) ?
INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION PLAN (IEP)

A document that specifies educational goals and plans for a child with special needs.
What is least restrictive environment (LRE) ?
LEAST RESTRICTIVE ENVIRONMENT (LRE)

A legal requirement that children with special needs be assigned to the most general educational context in which they can be expected to learn.
What is resource room ?
RESOURCE ROOM

A room in which trained teachers help children with special needs, using specialized curricula and equipment.
What is inclusion ?
INCLUSION

An approach to educating children with special needs in which they are included in regular classrooms, with "appropriate aids and services," as required by law.
Sum up childrens learning.
Many children have special learning needs that originate in their brain development. Developmental psychopathologists emphasize that no one is typical in every way; the passage of time sometimes brings improvement and sometimes not. People with attention-deficit disorders, learning disabilities, and autistic spectrum disorders may function adequately or may have lifelong problems, depending on severity, family, school, and culture as well as on comorbid conditions. Specifics of diagnosis, prognosis, medication, and education are debatable; no child learns or behaves exactly like another, and no educational strategy is entirely successful.
Sum up A Healthy Time 1.
1. Middle childhood is a time of steady growth and few serious illnesses. Increasing independence and self-care allow most schoolage children to be relatively happy and competent.
Sum up A Healthy Time 2.
2. Physical activity aids health and joy in many ways. However, current environmental conditions make informal neighborhood play scarce, school physical education less prevalent, and sports leagues less welcoming for every school-age child.
Sum up Two Commmon Health Problems 3.
3. Childhood obesity is a worldwide epidemic. Although genetics plays a role in body weight, less exercise and the greater availability of unhealthy food are also culprits. Many adults do not fully recognize this problem, which is one reason contemporary children are heavier than the children of the previous generation.
Sum up Two Commmon Health Problems 4.
4. The incidence of asthma is increasing. Although the origins of asthma are genetic and the triggers are specific allergens, primary and secondary prevention have proved to be effective. This includes extending breast-feeding, increasing outdoor play, and reducing air pollution.
Sum up Brain Development 5.
5. Brain development continues during middle childhood, enhancing every aspect of development. Myelination increases, speeding communication between neurons. The prefrontal cortex and the corpus callosum continue to mature, allowing not only analysis and planning but also selective attention and automatization.
Sum up Brain Development 6.
6. IQ tests are designed to quantify intellectual aptitude. Most such tests emphasize language and logical ability and predict school achievement. IQ tests also reflect the culture in which they were created.
Sum up Brain Development 7.
7. Achievement tests measure what a person has actually accomplished. Most standard achievement tests measure academic learn¬ ing. Especially for assessing aptitude, measuring adaptation to daily life is crucial. This is useful in diagnosing mental retardation.
Sum up Brain Development 8.
8. Critics contend that intelligence is actually manifested in multiple ways, which conventional IQ tests are too limited to meas¬ ure. The concept of multiple intelligences recognizes creative and practical abilities, some of which are difficult to test.
Sum up Children with Special Needs 9.
9. Developmental psychopathology uses an understanding of normal development to inform the study of unusual development. Four general lessons have emerged: Abnormality is normal; disability changes over time; adolescence and adulthood may make a condition better or worse; and diagnosis depends on context. Every disability has a physical and a psychological component.
Sum up Children with Special Needs 10.
Children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have potential problems in three areas: inattention, impulsiveness, and overactivity. The treatment for attnetion deficits is a combination of medication, home management, and education. Stimulant medication often helps children with ADHD to learn but this treatment must be carefully monitored.
Sum up Children with Special Needs 11.
People with learning disabilities have unusual difficulty in mastering specific skills that other people learn easily. the most common learning disability that manifests itself during school years is dyslexia, unusal difficulty with reading. Children with learning disabilities can be helped if the problem is spotted early and if the assistance is individualized to suit the particular child.
Sum up Children with Special Needs 12.
12. Children with autistic spectrum disorders typically show odd and delayed language ability, impaired interpersonal skills, and unusual play. Several specific disorders, including Asperger syndrome and Rett syndrome, fall into this category. Autism may improve with intensive early education, but it never disappears entirely.
Sum up Children with Special Needs 13.
13. About 10 percent of all school-age children in the United States receive special education services. These services begin with an IEP (individual education plan) and assignment to the least restrictive environment (LRE).
Sum up Children with Special Needs 14.
14. Inclusion of children with special needs in regular education may aid the social skills of all children. However, inclusion does not meet every child's needs. Both academic and interpersonal abilities require practice, mentoring, and encouragement.
What is concrete operational thought?
CONCRETE OPERATIONAL THOUGHT

Piaget's term for the ability to reason logically about direct experiences and perceptions.
What is classification ?
CLASSIFICATION

The logical principle that things can be organized into groups (or categories or classes) according to some characteristic they have in common.
What is identity ?
IDENTITY

The logical principle that certain characteristics of an object remain the same even if other characteristics change.
What is reversibility ?
REVERSIBILITY

The logical principle that a thing that has been changed can sometimes be returned to its original state by reversing the process by which it was changed.
What is information-processing theory ?
INFORMATION- PROCESSING THEORY

A perspective that compares human thinking processes, by analogy, to computer analysis of data, including sensory input, connections, stored memories, and output.
What is sensory memory ?
SENSORY MEMORY

The component of the information-processing system in which incoming stimulus information is stored for a split second to allow it to be processed. (Also called the sensory register.)
What is working memory ?
WORKING MEMORY

The component of the information-processing system in which current conscious mental activity occurs. (Also called short-term memory.)
What is long-term memory ?
LONG TERM- MEMORY

The component of the information-processing system in which virtually limitless amounts of information can be stored indefinitely.
What is knowledge base ?
KNOWLEDGE BASE

A body of knowledge in a particular area that makes it easier to master new information in that area.
What is control processes ?
CONTROL PROCESSES

Mechanisms (including selective attention, metacognition, and emotion regulation) that combine memory, processing speed, and knowledge to regulate the analysis and flow of information within the information-processing system. (Also called executive processes.)
What is metacognition ?
METACOGNITION

"Thinking about thinking," or the ability to evaluate a cognitive task in order to determine how best to accomplish it, and then to monitor and adjust one's performance on that task.
Sum up School Age Children and learning.
Piaget and Vygotsky both recognized that school-age children are avid learners who actively build on the knowledge they already have. Piaget emphasized the child's own logical thinking, as the principles of classification, identity, and reversibility are understood during concrete operational thought. Research inspired by Vygotsky and the sociocultural perspective fills in Piaget's outline with details of the actual learning situation. Cultural differences can be powerful; specific instruction and practical experience make a difference.
What is English-language learner (ELL)?
ENGLISH- LANGUAGE LEARNER (ELL)

A child who is learning English as a second language.
What is language shift ?
LANGUAGE SHIFT

A change from one language to another, which occurs not only in speaking and writing but also in the brain. A language shift is evident in many children who no longer speak or understand their mother tongue because a new language has come to dominate the linguistic areas of their brains.
What is immersion ?
IMMERSON

A strategy in which instruction in all school subjects occurs in the second (majority) language that a child is learning.
What is bilingual education ?
BILINGUAL EDUCATION

A strategy in which school subjects are taught in both the learner's original language and the second (majority) language.
What is ESL (English as a second language) ?
ESL (English as a second language)

An approach to teaching English in which all children who do not speak English are placed together in an intensive course to learn basic English so that they can be educated in the same classroom as native English speakers.
Sum up children learning language.
Children continue to learn language rapidly during the school years. They become more flexible, logical, and knowledgeable, figuring out the meanings of new words and grasping metaphors, jokes, and compound words. Many converse with friends using informal speech and master a more formal code to use in school. They are able to master whatever grammar and vocabulary they are taught, and they succeed at the practical task of communicating differently with friends, teachers, and family members.
Millions become proficient in a second language, a process facilitated by teachers who help them connect the new language and their original one and by peers who do not make them feel ashamed. Adults who speak and listen to each child, in school and at home, continue to help with language learning. The cultural context is crucial for making children aware of how much each language is valued by their community and nation.
What is Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) ?
Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS)

Inaugurated in 2001, a planned five-year cycle of international trend studies in the reading ability of fourth-graders.
What is TIMSS (Trends in Math and Science Study) ?
TIMSS (Trends in Math and Science Study)

An international assessment of the math and science skills of fourth- and eighth-graders. Although the TIMSS is very useful, different countries' scores are not always comparable, because sample selection, test administration, and content validity are hard to keep uniform.
What is National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)?
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)

An ongoing and nationally representative measure of U.S. children's achievement in reading, mathematics, and other subjects over time; nicknamed "the Nation's Report Card."
What is hidden curriculum ?
HIDDEN CURRICULUM

The unofficial, unstated, or implicit rules and priorities that influence the academic curriculum and every other aspect of learning in school.
What is phonics approach ?
PHONICS APPROACH

Teaching reading by first teaching the sounds of each letter and of various letter combinations.
What is whole-language approach ?
WHOLE LANGUAGE APPROACH

Teaching reading by encouraging early use of all language skills—talking and listening, reading and writing.
Sum up learning in different socieites.
Societies throughout the world recognize that school-age children are avid learners and that educated citizens are essential to economic development. However, schools differ in what and how children are taught. The nature and content of education raise ideological and political concerns. Examples are found in the reading wars, the math wars, debates over class size, and many other aspects of the overt and the hidden curricula.
Research finds that direct instruction (in phonics; in mathematical symbols and procedures; in the vocabulary, grammar, and syntax of second languages) is useful, even essential, if children are to master all the skills that adults want them to learn. Also crucial are motivation, pride, and social interaction. School-age children are great learners, but they cannot learn everything. Adults decide the specifics, and cultural values are apparent in every classroom.
Sum up Building on Theory 1.
1. According to Piaget, children begin concrete operational thought at about age 6 or 7. Egocentrism diminishes and logic begins. School-age children can understand classification, conservation, identity, and reversibility.
Sum up Building on Theory 2.
2. Vygotsky stressed the social context of learning, including the specific lessons of school and the overall influence of culture.
International research finds that maturation is one factor in the cognitive development of school-age children (as Piaget predicted) and that cultural and economic forces are also influential (as Vygotsky predicted).
Sum up Building on Theory 3.
3. An information-processing approach examines each step of the thinking process, from input to output, using the computer as a model. Humans are more creative than computers, but this approach is useful for understanding memory, perception, and expression.
Sum up Building on Theory 4.
4. Memory begins with information that reaches the brain from the sense organs. Then selection processes allow some information to reach working memory. Finally, long-term memory stores some images and ideas indefinitely, retrieving some parts when needed.
Sum up Building on Theory 5.
5. Selective attention, a broader knowledge base, logical strategies for retrieval, and faster processing advance every aspect of cognition. Repeated practice makes thought patterns and skill sets almost automatic, so that they require little time or conscious effort.
Sum up Building on Theory 6.
6. Children become better at controlling and directing their thinking as the prefrontal cortex matures. Consequently, metacognition advances.
Sum up Languages 7.
7. Language learning improves in many practical ways, including expanded vocabulary, as words are logically linked together.
Sum up Languages 8.
8. Many children learn a second language, succeeding if they are well taught. In some schools, only one language is taught.
Sum up Languages 9.
9. Children of low SES are usually lower in linguistic skills, primarily because they hear less language and because adult expectations for their learning are low.
Sum up Teaching and Learning 10.
10. Nations and experts agree that education is critical during middle childhood. The vast majority of the world's children now attend primary school. Schools differ in what and how they teach, especially in the hidden curriculum.
Sum up Teaching and Learning 11.
11. International assessments are useful as comparisons, partly because few objective measures of learning are available. In the United States, the No Child Left Behind Act and the National Assessment of Educational Progress attempt to raise the standard of education, with mixed success.
Sum up Teaching and Learning 12.
12. The reading wars pitted advocates of phonics against advocates of the whole-language approach. A truce has been reached, however, as research finds that phonological understanding is essential for every child who is just learning to read but that motivation and vocabulary are important as well.
Sum up Teaching and Learning 13.
13. Math learned by rote and math learned via social interaction are the two sides of the "math wars." Math and science achievement are higher in East Asian nations than elsewhere, perhaps because in those countries math lessons are sequential and interactive.
Sum up Teaching and Learning 14.
14. Cultural differences in assumptions about education are frequent, but scientific research on the best way for children to learn is scarce. For example, many people believe that children learn better in small classes, but the research is inconclusive.