Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
52 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
Freud's Psychosexual Stages:
|
1-Oral
2-Anal 3-Phallic 4-Latency 5-Genital |
|
|
Oral
|
Birth-1 year
The new ego directs the baby's sucking activities toward breast or bottle. If oral nees are not meet appropriately, the individual may develop such habits as thumb sucking, fingernail biting, and pencil chewing in childhood and overeating and smoking in later life |
|
|
Anal
|
1-3 years
Toddlers and preschoolers enjoy holding releasing urine and feces. Toilet training becomes a major issue between parent and child. If parents insist that children be trained before they are ready, or if they make too few demands, conflicts about anal control may appear in the form of extreme orderliness and cleanliness or messiness and disorder |
|
|
Phallic
|
3-6 years
As preschoolers take pleasure in genital stimulation, Freu's Oedipus conflict for boys and Electra conflict for girls arise. Children feel a sexual desire and adopt the same-sex parent's characteristics and values. As a result, the superego is formed, and children feel guilty each time they violate its standards |
|
|
Latency
|
6-11 years
Sexual instincts die down, and the superego develops futher. The child acquires new social values from adults and same-sex peers outside the family |
|
|
Genital
|
Adolescence
With puberty, the sexual impulses of the phallic stage reappear. If development has been successful during earlier stages, it leads to marriage, mature sexuality, and the birth and rearing of children. This stage extends through adulthood |
|
|
Erikson's Psychosocial stages, with corresponding Psychosexual stages
|
1-Basic trust vs. Mistrust (Oral)
2-Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (Anal) 3-Initiative vs. Guild (Phallic) 4-Industry vs. inferiority (Latency) 5-Identity vs. role confusion (Genital) 6-Intimacy vs. isolation 7-generativity vs. stagnation 8-Integrity vs. despair |
|
|
Basic Trust vs. Mistrust
(oral) |
Birth-1 year
From warm, responsive care, infants gain a sense of trust, or confidence, that the world is good. Mistrust occurs when infants have to wait too long for comfort and are handled harshly |
|
|
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
(Anal) |
1-3 years
using new mental and motor skills, children want to choose and decide for themselves. Autonomy is fostered when parents permit reasonable free choice and do not force or shame the child |
|
|
Initiative vs. Guilt
(phallic) |
3-6 years
Through make-believe play, children experiment with the kind of person they can become. Initiative-a sense of ambition and responsibility-develops when parents support their child's new sense of purpose. The danger is that parents will demand too much self-control, which leads to overcontrol, meaning too much guilt |
|
|
Industry vs. Inferiority
(Latency) |
6-11 years
At school, children develop the capacity to work and cooperate with others. Inferiority develops when negative experiences at home, at school, or with peers lead to feelings of incompetence |
|
|
Identity vs. Role Confusion
(Genital) |
Adolescence
The adolescent tries to answer the questions, Whom am I, and what is my place in society? By exploring values and vocational goals, the young person forms a personal identity. The negative outcome is confusion about future adult roles. |
|
|
Intimacy vs. Isolation
|
Emerging Adulthood
As teh quest for identity continues, young people also work on establishing intimate ties to others. Because of earlier disappointments, some individuals cannot form close relationships and remain isolated. |
|
|
Generativity vs. Stagnation
|
Adulthood
Generativity means giving to the next generation through child rearing, caring for other people, or productive work. The person who fails in these ways feels an absence of meaningful accomplishment |
|
|
Integrity vs despair
|
Old Age
In this final stage, individuals reflect on the kind of person they have been. Integrity results from feeling that life was worth living as it happened. Old people who are dissatisfied with their lives fear death. |
|
|
Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development
|
Sensorimotor
Preoperational Concrete Operational Formal Operational |
|
|
Sensorimotor
|
Birth-2 Years
Infants "think" by acting on the world with their eyes, ears, hands, and mouth. As a result they invent ways of solving sensorimotor problems, such as pulling a lever to hear the sound of a music box, finding hidden toys, and putting objects in and taking them out of containers |
|
|
Preoperational
|
2-7 Years
Preschool children use symbols to represent their earlier sensorimotor discoveries. Development of language and make-believe play takes place. However, thinking lacks the logic of the two remaining stages. |
|
|
Concrete Operational
|
7-11 Years
Children's reasoning becomes logical. School-age children understand that a certain amount of lemonade or play dough remains the same even after its apperance changes. They also organize objects into hierarchies of classes and subclasses. However, thinking falls short of adult intelligence. It is not yet abstract. |
|
|
Formal Operational
|
11 Years On
The capacity for abstract, systematic thinking enables adolescents, when faced with a problem, to start with a hypothesis, deduce testable inferences, and isolate and combine variables to see which inferences are confirmed. Adolescents can also evaluate the logic of verbal statements without referring to real-world circumstances. |
|
|
Structure of the environment in ecological Systems Theory
|
Microsystem
Mesosystem Exosystem Macrosystem |
|
|
Psychoanalytic Perspective
|
Discontinuous: Pyschosexual and psychosocial development takes place in stages. One Course: stages are assumed to be universal. Both nature and nurture: Innate impulses are channeled and controlled through child-rearing experiences. Early experiences set the course of later development
|
|
|
Behaviorism and Social Learning Theory
|
CONTINUOUS OR DISCONTINOUS DEVELOPMENT:
Continuous: Development involves an increase in learned behaviors. ONE COURSE OF DEVELOPMENT OR MANY? Many Possible courses: Behaviors reinforced and modeled may vary from child to child. NATURE OR NURTURE AS MORE IMPORTANT? Emphasis or nurture: Development results from conditioning and modeling. Both early and later experiences are important |
|
|
Piaget's Cognitive-Developmental Theory
|
CONTINUOUS OR DISCONTINUOUS DEVELOPMENT?
Discontinuous: Cognitive development takes place in stages. ONE COURSE OF DEVELOPMENT OR MANY? One course: stages are assumed to be universal. NATURE OR NURTURE AS MORE IMPORTANT? Both nature and nurture: Development occurs as the brain matures and children exercise their innate drive to discover reality in a generally stimulating environment. Bot early and later experiences are important |
|
|
Information processing
|
CONTINUOUS OR DISCONTINUOUS DEVELOPMENT?
Continuous: children generally improve in perception, attention, memory, and problem-solving skills. ONE COURSE OF DEVELOPMENT OR MANY? One course: Changes studied characterize most or all children. NATUTRE OR NURTURE AS MORE IMPORTANT? Both nature and nurture: children are active, sense-making beings who modify their thinking as the brain matures and they confront new environmental demands. Both early and later experiences are important |
|
|
Ethology and Evolutionary Developmental Psychology
|
CONTINUOUS OR DISCONTINUOUS DEVELOPMENT?
both continuous and discontinuous: children gradually develop a wider range of adaptive behaviors. Sensitive periods occur, in which qualitatively distinct capacities emerge fairly suddenly. ONE COURSE OF DEVELOPMENT OR MANY? One course: adaptive behaviors and sensitive periods apply to all members of a species. NATURE OR NURTURE AS MORE IMPORTANT? Both nature and nurture: evolution and heredity influence behavior, and learning lends greater flexibility and adaptiveness to it. In sensitive periods, early experiences set the course of later development |
|
|
Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory
|
CONTINUOUS OR DISCONTINUOUS DEVELOPMENT?
Not Specified. ONE COURSE OF DEVELOPMENT OR MANY? Many possible courses: children's characteristics join with environmental forces at multiple levels to mold development in unique ways. NATURE OR NURTURE AS MORE IMPORTANT? Both nature and nurture: Heredity, brain growth, and dialogues with more expert members of society jointly contribute to development. Both early and later experiences are important |
|
|
Dynamic Systems Perspective
|
CONTINUOUS OR DISCONTINUOUS DEVELOPMENT?
Both Continuous and Discontinous: Change is the system is always ongoing. Stagelike transformations occur as children reorganize their behavior so components of the system work as a functioning whole. ONE COURSE OF DEVELOPMENT OR MANY? Many possible courses: biological makeup, everyday tasks, and social experiences vary, yielding wide individual differences in specific skills. NATURE OR NURTURE AS MORE IMPORTANT? Both nature and nurture: the child's mind, body, and physical and social surroundings form an integrated system that guides mastery of new skills. Both early and later experiences are important. |
|
|
Systematic Observation
|
Naturalistic Observation
Structured Observation |
|
|
Self-Reports
|
Clinical Interview
structured interview, questionnaires, and tests |
|
|
Naturalistic Observation
|
DESCRIPTION
Observation of behavior in natural contexts. STRENGTHS reflects participants; everyday behaviors LIMITATIONS cannot control conditions under which participants are observed |
|
|
Structured Observation
|
DESCRIPTION
observation of behavior in a laboratory, where conditions are the same for all participants STRENGTHS Grants each participant an equal opportunity to display the behavior of interest. Permits study of behaviors rarely seen in everyday life. LIMITATIONS May not yield observations typical of participants' behavior in everyday life |
|
|
Clinical Interview
|
DESCRIPTION
flexible interviewing procedure in which the investigator obtains a complete account of the participant's thoughts. STRENGTHS comes as close as possible to the way participants think in everyday life. Great breadth and depth of information can be obtained in a short time. LIMITATIONS may not result in accurate reporting of information. Flexible procedure makes comparing individuals' responses difficult |
|
|
Structured Interview, Questionnaires, and Tests
|
DESCRIPTION
Self-report instruments in which each participant is asked the same questions in the same way. STRENGTHS permits comparisons of participants' responses and efficient data collection. Researchers can specify answer alternatives that participants might not think of in an open-ended interview LIMITATIONS Does not yield the same depth of information as a clinical interview. Responses are still subject to inaccurate reporting |
|
|
Clinical, or Case Study, Method
|
DESCRIPTION
a full picture of a single individual's psychological functioning, obtained by combining interviews, observations, and sometimes test scores STRENGTHS provides rich, descriptive insights into processes of development. LIMITATIONS may be biased by reserachers' theoretical preferences. Findings cannot be applied to individuals other than the participant |
|
|
Ethnography
|
DESCRIPTION
participant observation of a culture or distinct social group. By making extensive field notes, the researcher tries to capture the culture's unique values and social processes. STRENGTHS provides a more complete and accurate description than can be derived from a single observational visit, interview, or questionnaire. LIMITATIONS may be biased by researcher's values and theoretical preferences. Findings cannot be applied to individuals and settings other than the ones studied. |
|
|
Research Designs
|
General
Developmental |
|
|
General
|
Correlational
Experimental |
|
|
Developmental
|
Longitudinal
Cross-sectional Sequential design Microgenetic design |
|
|
Correlational
|
DESCRIPTION
the investigator obtains information on participants without altering their experiences STRENGTHS permits study of relationship between variables LIMITATIONS does not permit inferences about cause-and-effect relationships |
|
|
Experimental
|
DESCRIPTION
the investigator manipulates an independent variable and looks at its effect on a dependent variable; can be conducted in the laboratory or in the natural environment. STRENGTHS Permits inferences about cause-and-effect relationships LIMITATIONS when conducted in the laboratory, findings may not apply to the real world. When conducted in the field, control is usually weaker, and results may be due to variables other than the treatment |
|
|
Longitudinal
|
DESCRIPTION
the investigator studies the same group of participants repeatedly at different ages STRENGTHS permits study of common patterns and individual differences in development and relationships between early and later events and behaviors LIMITATIONS age-related changes may be distorted because of dropout and test-wiseness of participants and because of cohort effects |
|
|
Cross-Sectional
|
DESCRIPTION
the investigator studies groups of participants differing in age at the same point in time STRENGTHS more efficient than the longitudinal design LIMITATIONS does not permit study of individual developmental trends. Age differences may be distorted because of cohort effects |
|
|
Sequential Design
|
DESCRIPTION
the investigator follows a sequences of samples (two or more age groups), collecting data on them at the same points in time. STRENGTHS permits both longitudinal and cross-sectional comparisons. Reveals cohort effects. Permits tracking of age-related changes more efficiently than the longitudinal design. LIMITATIONS may have the same problems as longitudinal and cross-sectional stragegies, but the design itself helps identify difficulties |
|
|
Microgenetic Design
|
DESCRIPTION
the investigator presents children with a novel task and follows their mastery over a series of closely spaced sessions STRENGTHS offers insights into the process of development LIMITATIONS requires intensive study of participants' moment-by-moment behaviors. The time required for participants to change is difficult to anticipate. Practice effects may distort developmental trends. |
|
|
Protection from harm
|
Children have the right to be protected from physical or psychological harm i research. If in doubt about the harmful effects of research, investigators should seek the opinion of otherrs. When harm seems possible, investigators should find other means for obtaining the desired information or abandon the research
|
|
|
Informed Consent
|
All research participants, including children, have the right to have explained to them, in language appropriate to their level of understanding, all aspects of the research that may affect their willingness to participate. When children are participants, informed consent of parents as well as others who act on the child's behalf (such as school officials) should be obtained, preferably in writing. Children, and the adults responsible for them, have the right to discontinue participation in the research at any time.
|
|
|
Privacy
|
Children have the right to concealment of their identity on all information collected in the course of research. They also have the right with respect to written reports and any informal discussions about the research
|
|
|
Knowledge of Results
|
Children have the right to be informed of the results of research in language that is appropriate to their level of understanding
|
|
|
Beneficial Treatments
|
If experimental treatments believed to be beneficial are under investigation, children in control groups have the right to alternative beneficial treatments if they are available.
|
|
|
Maternal Factors Linked to Fraternal Twinning
|
Ethnicity
Family History of Twinning Age Nutrition Number of Births Season and Geographic Region Fertility Drugs and in vitrol Fertilization |
|
|
Ethnicity
|
Occurs in 4 per 1,000 births among Asians, 8 per 1,000 births among whites, 12 to 16 per 1,000 births among blacks
|
