Essentials Of Sociology Chapters 1-4

Front 1

Personal troubles

Back 1

Difficulties that are located in individual biographies and their immediate milieu, a seemingly private experience

Front 2

public issues

Back 2

difficulties or problems that are linked to the institutional and historical possibilities of social structure

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sociological imagination

Back 3

the application of imaginative thought to the asking and answering of sociological imagination "thinks himself away" from the familiar routines of daily life.

Front 4

structuration

Back 4

the two-way process by which we shape our social world through our individual actions and by which we are reshaped by society

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social facts

Back 5

according to emile durkheim, the aspects of social life that shape our actions as individuals. Durkheim believed that social facts could be studied scientifically.

Front 6

organic solidarity

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According to emile durkheim, the social cohesion that results from the various parts of a society functioning as an integrated whole.

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social constraint

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the conditioning influence on our behavior by the groups and societies of which we are members. Social constraint was regarded by Emile Durkheim as one of the distinctive properties of social facts.

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anomie

Back 8

a concept first brought into wide usage in sociology by Durkheim, referring to a situation in which social norms lose their hold over individual behavior.

Front 9

materials conception of history

Back 9

the view developed by Marx, according to which material, or economic, factors have a prime role in determining historical change

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capitalism

Back 10

an economic system based on the private ownership of wealth, which is invested and reinvested in order to produce profit.

Front 11

Symbolic interactionism

Back 11

a theoretical approach in sociology developed by George Herbert Mead, which emphasizes the role of symbols and language as core elements of all human interaction

Front 12

symbol

Back 12

one item used to stand for or represent another-as in the case of a flag, which symbolizes a nation

Front 13

functionalism

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a theoretical perspective based on the notion that social events can best be explained in terms of the functions they perform- that is, the contributions they make to the continuity of a society

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manifest functions

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the functions of a particular social activity that are known to and intended by the individual involved in the activity

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latent functions

Back 15

functional consequences that are not intended or recognized by the members of a social system in which they occur

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marxism

Back 16

a body of thought deriving its main elements from Karl Marx's ideas

Front 17

power

Back 17

the ability of individuals or the members of a group to achieve aims or further the interests they hold. Power is a pervasive element in all human relationships. Many conflicts in society are struggles over power, because how much power an individual or group is able to obtain governs how far they are able to put their wishes into practice.

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ideology

Back 18

shared ideas or beliefs that serve to justify the interests of dominant groups. Ideologies are found in all societies in which there are systematic and ingrained inequalities between groups. The concept of ideology connects closely with that of power, since ideological systems serve to legitimize the power that groups hold.

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feminist theory

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a sociological perspective that emphasizes the centrality of gender in analyzing the social the social world and particularly the experiences of women. There are many strands of feminist theory, but they all share the intention to explain gender inequalities in society and to work to overcome them.

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feminism

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advocacy of the rights of women to be equal with men in all spheres of life Feminism dates from the late eighteenth century in Europe, and feminist movements exist in most countries today.

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postmodernism

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The belief that society is no longer governed by history or progress. Postmodern society is highly pluralistic and diverse, with no "grand narrative" guiding its development.

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microsociology

Back 22

the study of human behavior in contexts of face to face interaction

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macrosociology

Back 23

the study of large scale groups, or organizations, or social systems.

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science

Back 24

the disciplined marshaling of empirical data, combined with theoretical approaches and theories that illuminate or explain those data.

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empirical investigation

Back 25

Factual inquiry carried out in any area of sociological study.

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factual questions

Back 26

questions that raise issues concerning matters of fact

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comparative questions

Back 27

questions concerned with drawing comparisons between different human societies for the purposes of sociological theory or research

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developmental questions

Back 28

questions that sociologists pose when looking at the origins and path of developmental of social institutions from the past to the present

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theoretical questions

Back 29

questions posed by sociologists when seeking to explain a particular range of observed events. the asking of theoretical questions is crucial to allowing us to generalize about the nature of social life.

Front 30

hypothesis

Back 30

an idea or a guess about a given state of affairs, put forward as a basis for empirical testing

Front 31

data

Back 31

factual information used as a basis for reasoning, discussion, or calculation. Social science data often refer to individuals' responses to survey questions

Front 32

ethnography

Back 32

the firsthand study of people using participant observation or interviewing

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participant observation

Back 33

a method of research widely used in sociology and anthropology, in which the researcher takes part in the activities of the group or community being studied. Also called fieldwork

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survey

Back 34

a method of sociological research in which questionnaires are administered to the population being studied.

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pilot study

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a trial run in survey research

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sampling

Back 36

studying a proportion of individuals or cases from a larger population as representative of that population as a whole

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sample

Back 37

a small proportion of a larger population

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representative sample

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a sample from a larger population that is statistically typical of that population.

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random sampling

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sampling method in which a sample is chosen so that every member of the population has the same probability of being included

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experiment

Back 40

a research method in which a sample is chosen so that every member of the population has the same probability of being included

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comparative research

Back 41

research that compares one set of findings on one society with the same type of findings on other societies

Front 42

measures of central tendency

Back 42

the ways of calculating averages

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correlation coefficient

Back 43

a measure of the degree of correlation between variables

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mean

Back 44

a statistical measure of central tendency, or average, based on dividing a total by the number of individual cases

Front 45

mode

Back 45

the number that appears most often in a given set of data. This can come times be a helpful way of portraying central tendency.

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median

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the number that falls halfway in a range of numbers-a way of calculating central tendency that is sometimes more useful than calculating a mean

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standard deviation

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a way of calculating the spread of a group of figures

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degree of dispersal

Back 48

the range or distribution of a set of figures.

Front 49

oral history

Back 49

interviews with people about events they witnessed or experiences at some point earlier in their lives

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triangulation

Back 50

the use of multiple research methods as a way of producing more reliable empirical data than are available from any single method

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informed consent

Back 51

the process whereby the study investigator informs potential participants about the risks and benefits involved in the research study. Informed consent must be obtained before an individual participates in a study.

Front 52

debriefing

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following a research study, the investigator will inform study participants about the true purpose of the study, and will reveal any deception that happened during the study.

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niqab

Back 53

veil that covers a woman's hair and face, leaving only the eyes clearly visible.

Front 54

culture

Back 54

the values, norms, and material goods characteristic of a given group. Like the concept of society, the notion of culture is widely used in sociology and the other social sciences. Culture is one of the most distinctive properties of human social association.

Front 55

values

Back 55

ideas held by individuals or groups about what is desirable, proper, good, and bad. What individuals value is strongly influenced by the specific culture in which they happen to live.

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norms

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rules of conduct that specify appropriate behavior in a given range of social situation. A norm either prescribes a given type of behavior or forbids it. All human groups follow definite norms, which are always backed by sanctions of one kind or another-varying from informal disapproval to physical punishment

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material goods

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the physical objects that a society create; these influence the way in which people live

Front 58

instinct

Back 58

a fixed pattern of behavior that has genetic origins and that appear in all normal animals within a given species.

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society

Back 59

a group of people who live in a particular territory, are subject to a common system of political authority, and are aware of having a distinct identity from other groups.

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sociobiology

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an approach that attempts to explain the behavior of both animals and human beings in terms of biological principles

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subculture

Back 61

values and norms distinct from those of the majority, held by a group within wider society

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assimilation

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the acceptance of a minority group by a majority population, in which the new group takes on the values and norms of the dominant culture.

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multiculturalism

Back 63

the viewpoint according to which ethnic groups can exist separately and share equally in economic and political life.

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ethnocentrism

Back 64

the tendency to look at other cultures through the eyes of one's own culture, and thereby misrepresent them.

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cultural relativism

Back 65

the practice of judging a society by its own standards.

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cultural universals

Back 66

values or modes of behavior shared by all human cultures

Front 67

Language

Back 67

the primary vehicle of meaning and communication in a society, language is a system of symbols that represent objects and abstract thoughts

Front 68

linguistic relativity hypothesis

Back 68

a hypothesis, based on the theories of Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf, that perceptions are relative to language.

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signifier

Back 69

any vehicle of meaning and communication

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semiotics

Back 70

the study of the ways in which linguistic and nonlinguistic phenomenon can generate meaning

Front 71

pastoral societies

Back 71

societies whose subsistence derives from the rearing if domesticated animals.

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agrarian societies

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societies whose means of subsistence are based on agricultural production (crop growing)

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industrialized societies

Back 73

highly developed nation-states in which the majority of the population work in factories or offices rather than in agriculture, and most people live in urban area

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nation-state

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a particular type of state, characteristic of the modern world, in which a government has sovereign power within a defined territorial area, and the population are citizens who know themselves to be part of a single nation. Nation-states are closely associated with the rise of nationalism, although nationalist loyalties do not always conform to the boundaries of specific states.

Front 75

colonialism

Back 75

the process whereby Western nations established their rule in parts of the world away from their home territories.

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developing world

Back 76

the less-developed societies, in which industrial production is either virtually nonexistent or only developed to a limited degree.

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newly industrializing economies

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developing countries that over the past two decades have begun to develop a strong industrial base, such as Singapore and Hong Kong

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nationalism

Back 78

a set of beliefs and symbols expressing identification with a national community

Front 79

socialization

Back 79

the social processes through which we develop an awareness of social norms and values and achieve a distinct sense of self.

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social reproduction

Back 80

the process whereby societies have structural continuity over time. Social reproduction is an important pathway though which parents transmit or produce values, norms, and social practices among their children.

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cognition

Back 81

human thought processes involving perception, reasoning, and remembering

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social self

Back 82

the basis of self consciousness in human individuals, according to the theory of G.H. Mead. The social self is the identity conferred upon an individual by the reactions of others. A person achieves self-consciousness by becoming aware of this social identity.

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self consciousness

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awareness of one's distinct social identity as a person separate from others. Human beings are not born with self-consciousness but acquire an awareness of self as a result of early socialization.

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generalized other

Back 84

a concept in the theory of George Herbert Mead, accruing to which the individual takes over the general values of a given group or society during the socialization process.

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sensorimotor stage

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according to Jean Piaget, a stage of human cognitive development in which the child's awareness of its environment is dominated by perception and touch

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preoperational stage

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according to Jean Piaget, a stage of human cognitive development in which the child has advanced sufficiently to master basic modes of logical thought.

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egocentric

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according to jean piaget, the characteristic quality of a child during the early years of her life. Egocentric thinking involves understanding objects and events in the environment solely in terms of the child's own position.

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concrete operational stage

Back 88

A stage of human cognitive development, as formulated by Jean Piaget, in which the child's thinking is based primarily on physical perception of the world. In this phase, the child is not yet capable of dealing with abstract concepts or hypothetical situations.

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formal operational stage

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according to Jean Piaget, a stage of human cognitive development at which the growing child becomes capable of handling abstract concept and hypothetical situations

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agents of sociatlization

Back 90

groups or social contexts within which processes of socialization take place.

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nuclear family

Back 91

a family group consisting of an adult or adult couple and their dependent children

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peer group

Back 92

a friendship group opposed of individuals of similar age and social status

Front 93

age-grades

Back 93

the system found in small traditional cultures by which people belonging to a similar age group are categorized together and hold similar rights and obligations.

Front 94

social roles

Back 94

socially defined expectations of an individual in a given status, or occupying a particular social position. In every society, individuals play a number of social roles, such as teenager, parent, worker, or political leader.

Front 95

self-identity

Back 95

the ongoing process of self-development and definition of our personal identity through which we formulate a unique sense of ourselves and our relationship to the world around us.

Front 96

life course

Back 96

the various transitions and stages people experience during their lives

Front 97

aging

Back 97

the combination of biological, psychological, and social processes that affect people as they grow old

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social gerontologists

Back 98

those who study aging and the elderly

Front 99

disengagement theory

Back 99

a functionalist theory of aging that holds that it is functional for society to remove people from their traditional roles when they become elderly, thereby freeing up those roles for others

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activity theory

Back 100

a functionalist theory of aging which holds that busy, engaged people are more likely to lead fulfilling and productive lives.

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social conflict theories of aging

Back 101

arguments that emphasize the ways in which the larger social structure helps to shape the opportunities available to the elderly. Unequal opportunities are seen as creating the potential for conflict.

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young old

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sociological term for persons between the ages of sixty-five and seventy four

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old old

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sociological term for persons between the ages of seventy-five and eighty-four

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oldest old

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sociological term for persons at the age of eighty-five and older

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ageism

Back 105

discrimination or prejudice against against a person on the grounds of age

Front 106

microsociology

Back 106

the study of human behavior in contexts of face-to-face interaction

Front 107

social interaction

Back 107

the process by which we act and react to those around us

Front 108

civil inattention

Back 108

the process whereby individuals in the same physical setting demonstrate to one another that they are aware of each other's presence

Front 109

nonverbal communication

Back 109

communication between individuals based on facial expression or bodily gestures rather than on language

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social role

Back 110

socially defined expectations of an individual in a given status, or occupying a particular social positions. in every society, individuals play a number of social roles, such as teenager, parent, worker, or political leader.

Front 111

status

Back 111

the social honor or prestige that a particular group is accorded by other members of a society. Status groups normally display distinct styles of life-patterns of behavior that the members of a group follow. Status privilege may be positive or negative. Pariah status groups are regarded with disdain or treated as outcast by the majority of the population.

Front 112

Social position

Back 112

The social identity an individual has in a given group or society. Social positions may be general in nature or may be more specific.

Front 113

impression management

Back 113

preparing for the presentation of one's social role

Front 114

unfocused interaction

Back 114

interaction occurring among people present in a particular setting but not engaged in direct face to face communication.

Front 115

focused interaction

Back 115

interaction between individuals engaged in a common activity or in direct conversation with one another.

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encounter

Back 116

a meeting between two or more people in a situation of face to face interaction. Our daily lives can be seen as a series of different encounters strung out across the course of the day. In modern societies, many of these encounters are with strangers rather than people we know.

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ethnomethodolgy

Back 117

the study of how people make sense of what others say and do in the course of day to day social interaction. It is concerned with the ethnomethods by which people sustain meaningful exchanges with one another

Front 118

conversation analysis

Back 118

the empirical study of conversations, employing techniques drawn from ethnomethodology. conversation analysis examines details of naturally occurring conversations to reveal the organizational principles of talk and its role in the production and reproduction of social order

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interactional vandalism

Back 119

the deliberate subversion of the tacit rules of conversation.

Front 120

response cries

Back 120

seemingly involuntary exclamations individuals make when, for example, being taken by surprise, dropping something inadvertently, or expressing pleasure.

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personal space

Back 121

the physical space individuals maintain between and others

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time space

Back 122

when and where events occur

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regionalization

Back 123

the division of social life into different regional setting or zones

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clock time

Back 124

time as measured by the clock, in the terms of hours, minutes, and second. Before the invention of clocks, time reckoning was based on events in the natural world such as the rising and the setting of the sun

Front 125

compulsion of proximity

Back 125

people's need to interact with others in their presence