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272 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
abstract |
A brief description of a completed or proposed study, usually located at the beginning of a
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accessible population |
The population of people available for a particular study; often a nonrandom
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accidental sampling |
Selection of the most readily available people as study participants; also called |
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acquiescence response set |
A bias in self-report instruments, especially in psychosocial scales, |
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after-only design |
An experimental design in which data are collected from subjects only after an
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allocation concealment |
The process used to ensure that those enrolling subjects into a clinical trial
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alpha |
(1) In tests of statistical significance, the level indicating the probability of a Type I error;
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alternative hypothesis |
In hypothesis testing, a hypothesis different from the one being tested—usually, different from the null hypothesis. |
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analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) |
A statistical procedure used to test mean differences among
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analysis of variance (ANOVA) |
A statistical procedure for testing mean differences among three or |
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anonymity |
Protection of participants’ confidentiality such that even the researcher cannot link |
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arm |
A group of participants allocated a particular treatment (e.g., the control arm or treatment
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associative relationship |
An association between two variables that cannot be described as causal |
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asymmetric distribution |
A distribution of data values that is skewed, with two halves that are not |
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attention control group |
A control group that gets a similar amount of attention to those in the
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attribute variables |
Preexisting characteristics of study participants, which the researcher simply |
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attrition |
The loss of participants over the course of a study, which can create bias by changing the
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baseline data |
Data collected prior to an intervention, including pretreatment data measuring the
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before–after design |
An experimental design in which data are collected from subjects both before |
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beta
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(1) In multiple regression, the standardized coefficients indicating the relative weights of the predictor variables in the equation; (2) in statistical testing, the probability of a Type II error.
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between-subjects design |
A research design in which there are separate groups of people being
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bias |
Any influence that distorts the results of a study and undermines validity. |
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blind review |
The review of a manuscript or proposal such that neither the author nor the reviewer |
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blinding |
The process of preventing those involved in a study (subjects, intervention agents, or data
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Bonferroni correction |
An adjustment made to establish a more conservative alpha level when |
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carry-over effect |
The influence that one treatment can have on subsequent treatments. |
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case-control design |
A nonexperimental research design involving the comparison of a “case” (i.e., a
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categorical variable |
A variable with discrete values (e.g., gender) rather than values along a |
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causal (cause-and-effect) relationship |
A relationship between two variables such that the
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central tendency |
A statistical index of the “typicalness” of a set of scores, derived from the center of
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chi-square test |
A statistical test used to assess differences in proportions; symbolized as 2. |
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clinical relevance |
The degree to which a study addresses a problem of significance to the practice of |
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clinical trial |
A study designed to assess the safety, efficacy, and effectiveness of a new clinical
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closed-ended question |
A question that offers respondents a set of mutually exclusive response |
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cluster randomization |
The random assignment of intact groups of subjects—rather than individual
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cluster sampling |
A form of sampling in which large groupings (“clusters”) are selected first (e.g., |
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coefficient alpha (Cronbach’s alpha) |
A reliability index that estimates the internal consistency or |
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cohort design |
A nonexperimental design in which a defined group of people (a cohort) is followed
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cohort study |
A kind of trend study that focuses on a specific subpopulation (which is often an agerelated subgroup) from which different samples are selected at different points in time (e.g., the cohort of nursing students who graduated between 1970 and 1974). |
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comparison group |
A group of subjects whose scores on a dependent variable are used to evaluate
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concurrent validity |
The degree to which scores on an instrument are correlated with an external
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confidence interval (CI) |
The range of values within which a population parameter is estimated to
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confidentiality |
Protection of study participants so that data provided are never publicly divulged. |
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confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) |
A factor analysis designed to confirm a hypothesized |
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confounding variable |
A variable extraneous to the research question that confounds or potentially
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construct validity |
The validity of inferences from observed persons, settings, and interventions in a
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contamination |
The inadvertent, undesirable influence of one treatment condition on another |
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content validity |
The degree to which the items in an instrument adequately represent the universe |
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continuous variable |
A variable that can take on an infinite range of values along a specified |
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control group |
Subjects in an experiment who do not receive the experimental treatment and whose
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controlled trial |
A trial that has a control group, with or without randomization. |
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convenience sampling |
Selection of the most readily available persons as participants in a study;
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convergent validity |
An approach to construct validation that involves assessing the degree to which
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correlation |
An association or bond between variables, with variation in one variable systematically |
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correlation coefficient |
An index summarizing the degree of relationship between variables,
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correlational research |
Research that explores the interrelationships among variables of interest |
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counterfactual |
The condition or group used as a basis of comparison in a study, embodying what |
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covariate |
A variable that is statistically controlled (held constant) in ANCOVA, typically an
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criterion-related validity |
The degree to which scores on an instrument are correlated with some |
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Cronbach’s alpha |
A widely used reliability index that estimates the internal consistency of a |
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crossover design |
An experimental design in which one group of subjects is exposed to more than |
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cross-sectional design |
A study design in which data are collected at one point in time; sometimes |
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data triangulation |
The use of multiple data sources for the purpose of validating conclusions. |
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Delphi survey |
A technique for obtaining judgments from an expert panel about an issue of concern;
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dependent variable |
The variable hypothesized to depend on or be caused by another variable (the
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descriptive research |
Research that has as its main objective the accurate portrayal of the
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dichotomous variable |
A variable having only two values or categories (e.g., gender). |
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discriminant validity |
An approach to construct validation that involves assessing the degree to
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double-blind experiment |
An experiment in which neither the subjects nor those who administer
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effectiveness study |
A clinical trial designed to shed light on effectiveness of an intervention under |
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efficacy study |
A tightly controlled clinical trial designed to establish the efficacy of an intervention
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eligibility criteria |
The criteria designating the specific attributes of the target population, by which
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exclusion criteria |
The criteria that specify characteristics that a population does not have. |
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experiment |
A study in which the researcher controls (manipulates) the independent variable and |
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experimental group |
The subjects who receive the experimental treatment or intervention. |
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external validity |
The degree to which study results can be generalized to settings or samples other
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F-ratio |
The statistic obtained in several statistical tests (e.g., ANOVA) in which variation attributable |
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face validity |
The extent to which a measuring instrument looks as though it is measuring what it
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factor analysis |
A statistical procedure for reducing a large set of variables into a smaller set of
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factor loading |
In factor analysis, the weight associated with a variable on a given factor.
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factorial design |
An experimental design in which two or more independent variables are |
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findings |
The results of the analysis of research data. |
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Fisher’s exact test |
A statistical procedure used to test the significance of the difference in
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follow-up study |
A study undertaken to determine the outcomes of individuals with a specified |
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frequency distribution |
A systematic array of numeric values from the lowest to the highest,
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generalizability |
The degree to which the research methods justify the inference that the findings |
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Hawthorne effect |
The effect on the dependent variable resulting from subjects’ awareness that they
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heterogeneity |
The degree to which objects are dissimilar (i.e., characterized by variability) on some |
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histogram |
A graphic presentation of frequency distribution data. |
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homogeneity |
(1) In terms of the reliability of an instrument, the degree to which its subparts are
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hypothesis |
A statement of predicted relationships between variables.
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impact factor |
An annual measure of citation frequency for an average article in a given journal, that
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IMRAD format |
The organization of a research report into four sections: the Introduction, Method, |
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incidence rate
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The rate of new cases with a specified condition, determined by dividing the number of new cases over a given period of time by the number at risk of becoming a new case (i.e. free of the condition at the outset of the time period).
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independent variable |
The variable that is believed to cause or influence the dependent variable; in
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informed consent |
An ethical principle that requires researchers to obtain the voluntary |
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instrument |
The device used to collect data (e.g., a questionnaire, test, observation schedule, etc.).
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instrumentation threat |
The threat to the internal validity of the study that can arise if the
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intention to treat |
A strategy for analyzing data in an intervention study that includes participants
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interaction effect |
The effect of two or more independent variables acting in combination
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internal consistency |
The degree to which the subparts of an instrument are all measuring the same |
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internal validity
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The degree to which it can be inferred that the experimental treatment (independent variable), rather than uncontrolled, extraneous factors, is responsible for observed
effects. |
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interrater (interobserver) reliability |
The degree to which two raters or observers, operating |
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interrupted time series design |
See time series design |
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intervention |
In experimental research, the experimental treatment or manipulation. |
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judgmental sampling |
A type of nonprobability sampling method in which the researcher selects
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kappa |
An index used to measure interrater agreement, which summarizes the extent of agreement
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keyword |
An important term used to search for references on a topic in a bibliographic database.
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known-groups technique |
A technique for estimating the construct validity of an instrument
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Kruskal-Wallis test |
A nonparametric test used to test the difference between three or more
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level of measurement |
A system of classifying measurements according to the nature of the |
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level of significance |
The risk of making a Type I error in a statistical analysis, established by the
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Likert scale |
A composite measure of attitudes involving the summation of scores on a set of items
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linear regression |
An analysis for predicting the value of a dependent variable from one or more
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logistic regression |
A multivariate regression procedure that analyzes relationships between one or |
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longitudinal study |
A study designed to collect data at more than one point in time, in contrast to a
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main effects |
In a study with multiple independent variables, the effects of a single independent
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manipulation |
An intervention or treatment introduced by the researcher in an experimental or
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Mann-Whitney U test |
A nonparametric statistic used to test the difference between two
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masking |
See Blinding |
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matching |
The pairing of subjects in one group with those in another group based on their similarity |
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maturation threat |
A threat to the internal validity of a study that results when changes to the
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McNemar test |
A statistical test for comparing differences in proportions when values are derived |
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mean |
A measure of central tendency, computed by summing all scores and dividing by the number |
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measurement |
The assignment of numbers to objects according to specified rules to characterize
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median |
A descriptive statistic that is a measure of central tendency, representing the exact middle
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missing values |
Values missing from a data set for some study participants, due, for example, to
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mixed method research |
Research in which both qualitative and quantitative data are collected and
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mortality threat |
A threat to the internal validity of a study, referring to the differential loss of |
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multistage sampling |
A sampling strategy that proceeds through a set of stages from larger to
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multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) |
A statistical procedure used to test the significance of
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negative relationship |
A relationship between two variables in which there is a tendency for high
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network sampling |
The sampling of participants based on referrals from others already in the
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nondirectional hypothesis |
A research hypothesis that does not stipulate the expected direction of
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nonequivalent control group design |
A quasi-experimental design involving a comparison group |
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nonexperimental research |
Studies in which the researcher collects data without introducing an
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noninferiority trial |
A trial designed to determine whether the effect of a new treatment is not |
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nonparametric tests |
A class of statistical tests that do not involve stringent assumptions about the
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nonprobability sampling |
The selection of sampling units (e.g., participants) from a population |
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nonresponse bias |
A bias that can result when a nonrandom subset of people invited to participate |
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nonsignificant result |
The result of a statistical test indicating that group differences or an observed |
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normal distribution |
A theoretical distribution that is bell-shaped and symmetrical; also called a |
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null hypothesis |
A hypothesis stating no relationship between the variables under study; used
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number needed to treat (NNT) |
An estimate of how many people would need to receive an |
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objectivity |
The extent to which two independent researchers would arrive at similar judgments or
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odds |
A way of expressing the chance of an event—the probability of an event occurring to the
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odds ratio (OR) |
The ratio of one odds to another odds, for example, the ratio of the odds of an event |
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on-protocol analysis |
A principle for analyzing data that includes data only from those members of a |
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one-tailed test |
A statistical test in which only values in one tail of a distribution are considered in |
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open-ended question |
A question in an interview or questionnaire that does not restrict
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operationalization |
The process of translating research concepts into measurable phenomena.
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ordinal measurement |
A measurement level that rank orders phenomena along some dimension.
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outcome measure |
A term sometimes used to refer to the dependent variable, that is, the measure
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outcomes research |
Research designed to document the effectiveness of health care services and the
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outliers |
Values that lie outside the normal range of values for other cases in a data set.
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p value |
In statistical testing, the probability that the obtained results are due to chance alone; the
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parametric tests |
A class of statistical tests that involve assumptions about the distribution of the |
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Pearson’s r |
A correlation coefficient designating the magnitude of relationship between two |
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peer reviewer |
A researcher who reviews and critiques a research report or proposal, and who
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permuted block randomization |
Randomization that occurs for blocks of subjects of even size (e.g.,
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pilot study |
A small-scale version, or trial run, done in preparation for a major study (the parent
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placebo |
A sham or pseudo intervention, often used as a control group condition. |
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placebo effect |
Changes in the dependant variable attributable to the placebo condition. |
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point prevalence rate |
The number of people with a condition or disease divided by the total
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population |
The entire set of individuals or objects having some common characteristics (e.g., all RNs
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positive predictive value (PPV) |
A measure of the usefulness of a screening/diagnostic test that can
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positive relationship |
A relationship between two variables in which high values on one variable
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positive results |
Research results that are consistent with the researcher’s hypotheses. |
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positively skewed distribution |
An asymmetric distribution of values with a disproportionately |
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post hoc test |
A test for comparing all possible pairs of groups following a significant test of overall
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posttest |
The collection of data after introducing an intervention. |
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posttest-only design |
An experimental design in which data are collected from subjects only after |
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power |
A research design’s ability to detect relationships that exist among variables.
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power analysis
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A procedure for estimating either the likelihood of committing a Type II error or |
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precision |
In statistics, the extent to which random errors have been reduced, usually expressed in
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prediction |
The use of empirical evidence to make forecasts about how variables will behave in a |
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predictive validity |
The degree to which an instrument can predict a criterion observed at a future |
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pretest |
(1) The collection of data prior to the experimental intervention; sometimes called baseline |
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pretest-posttest design |
An experimental design in which data are collected from research subjects |
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prevalence study |
A cross-sectional study undertaken to estimate the proportion of a population |
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probability sampling |
The selection of sampling units (e.g., participants) from a population using
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proposal |
A document communicating a research problem, its significance, proposed procedures for |
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prospective design |
A study design that begins with an examination of presumed causes (e.g.,
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psychometric assessment |
An evaluation of the quality of an instrument, based primarily on |
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psychometrics |
The theory underlying principles of measurement and the application of the theory
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purposive (purposeful) sampling |
A nonprobability sampling method in which the researcher
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Q sort |
A data collection method in which participants sort statements into a number of piles (usually
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quantitative analysis |
The manipulation of numeric data through statistical procedures for the |
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quantitative data |
Information collected in a quantified (numeric) form. |
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quantitative research |
The investigation of phenomena that lend themselves to precise |
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quasi-experimental design |
A design for an intervention study in which subjects are not randomly |
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questionnaire |
A document used to gather self-report data via self-administration of questions.
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quota sampling |
A nonrandom sampling method in which “quotas” for certain sample characteristics |
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r |
The symbol for a bivariate correlation coefficient, summarizing the magnitude and direction of a |
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R |
The symbol for the multiple correlation coefficient, indicating the magnitude (but not direction) of |
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R² |
The squared multiple correlation coefficient, indicating the proportion of variance in the
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random assignment |
The assignment of subjects to treatment conditions in a random manner (i.e.,
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random sampling |
The selection of a sample such that each member of a population has an equal
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randomization |
The assignment of subjects to treatment conditions in a random manner (i.e., in a
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randomized clinical trial (RCT) |
A full experimental test of an intervention, involving random
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range |
A measure of variability, computed by subtracting the lowest value from the highest value in a
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rating scale |
A scale that requires ratings of an object or concept along a continuum.
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raw data |
Data in the form in which they were collected, without being coded or analyzed. |
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receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC curve) |
A method used in developing and refining a |
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refereed journal |
A journal in which decisions about the acceptance of manuscripts are made based
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regression analysis |
A statistical procedure for predicting values of a dependent variable based on
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relationship |
A bond or a connection between two or more variables.
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relative risk (RR) |
An estimate of risk of “caseness” in one group compared to another, computed by
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reliability |
The degree of consistency or dependability with which an instrument measures an |
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reliability coefficient |
A quantitative index, usually ranging in value from .00 to 1.00, that provides
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repeated-measures ANOVA |
An analysis of variance used when there are multiple measures of the
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replication |
The deliberate repetition of research procedures in a second investigation for the
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representative sample |
A sample whose characteristics are comparable to those of the population |
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research design |
The overall plan for addressing a research question, including specifications for |
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research hypothesis |
The actual hypothesis a researcher wishes to test (as opposed to the null
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research methods |
The techniques used to structure a study and to gather and analyze information |
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research problem |
An enigmatic or perplexing condition that can be investigated through |
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research question |
A statement of the specific query the researcher wants to answer to address a |
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respondent |
In a self-report study, the study participant responding to questions posed by the
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response rate |
The rate of participation in a study, calculated by dividing the number of persons
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response set bias |
The measurement error resulting from the tendency of some individuals to
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retrospective design |
A study design that begins with the manifestation of the dependent variable in |
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rival hypothesis |
An alternative explanation, competing with the researcher’s hypothesis, for
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sample |
A subset of a population, selected to participate in a study.
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sampling |
The process of selecting a portion of the population to represent the entire population. |
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sampling bias |
Distortions that arise when a sample is not representative of the population from |
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sampling error |
The fluctuation of the value of a statistic from one sample to another drawn from the |
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sampling frame |
A list of all the elements in the population, from which the sample is drawn.
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sampling plan |
The formal plan specifying a sampling method, a sample size, and procedures for |
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scale |
A composite measure of an attribute, involving the combination of several items that have a |
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scatter plot |
A graphic representation of the relationship between two variables. |
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screening instrument |
An instrument used to determine whether potential subjects for a study meet
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selection threat (self-selection) |
A threat to the internal validity of the study resulting from |
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self-report |
A method of collecting data that involves a direct report of information by the person
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semantic differential |
A technique used to measure attitudes in which respondents rate concepts of
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semi-structured interview |
An interview in which the researcher has a list of topics to cover rather |
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sensitivity |
The ability of screening instruments to correctly identify a “case,” that is, to correctly |
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setting |
The physical location and conditions in which data collection takes place in a study |
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significance level |
The probability that an observed relationship could be caused by chance; |
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simple random sampling |
Basic probability sampling involving the selection of sample members |
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site |
The overall location where a study is undertaken. |
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snowball sampling |
The selection of participants through referrals from earlier participants; also
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social desirability response set |
A bias in self-report instruments created when participants have a |
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Spearman’s rank-order correlation (Spearman’s rho) |
A correlation coefficient indicating the
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specificity |
The ability of a screening instrument to correctly identify noncases. |
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standard deviation |
The most frequently used statistic for measuring the degree of variability in a
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standard scores |
Scores expressed in terms of standard deviations from the mean, with raw scores |
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statistical power |
The ability of the research design to detect true relationships among variables.
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statistical significance |
A term indicating that the results from an analysis of sample data are |
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strata |
Subdivisions of the population according to some characteristic (e.g., males and females);
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stratified random sampling |
The random selection of study participants from two or more strata of |
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subject |
An individual who participates and provides data in a study; term used primarily in |
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summated rating scale |
See Likert scale. |
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symmetric distribution |
A distribution of values with two halves that are mirror images of the each
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systematic sampling |
The selection of sample members such that every kth (e.g., every tenth) person
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target population |
The entire population in which a researcher is interested and to which he or she would like to generalize the study results.
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test–retest reliability |
Assessment of the stability of an instrument by correlating the scores obtained on two administrations. |
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time series design |
A quasi-experimental design involving the collection of data over an extended |
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treatment group |
The group receiving the intervention being tested; the experimental group. |
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t-test |
A parametric statistical test for analyzing the difference between two means.
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Type I error |
An error created by rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true (i.e., the researcher concludes that a relationship exists when in fact it does not—a false positive).
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Type II error |
An error created by accepting the null hypothesis when it is false (i.e., the researcher concludes that no relationship exists when in fact it does—a false negative).
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two-tailed tests |
Statistical tests in which both ends of the sampling distribution are used to determine improbable values. |
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univariate descriptive study |
A study that gathers information on the occurrence, frequency of occurrence, or average value of the variables of interest, one variable at a time, without focusing on interrelationships among variables.
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univariate statistics |
Statistical analysis of a single variable for purposes of description (e.g., computing a mean).
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validity |
A quality criterion referring to the degree to which inferences made in a study are accurate
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validity coefficient |
An index, usually ranging from .00 to 1.00, yielding an estimate of how valid an |
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variability |
The degree to which values on a set of scores are dispersed. |
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variable |
An attribute that varies, that is, takes on different values (e.g., body temperature, heart
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visual analog scale (VAS) |
A scaling procedure used to measure certain clinical symptoms (e.g., pain, fatigue) by having people indicate on a straight line the intensity of the symptom.
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Wilcoxon signed ranks test |
A nonparametric statistical test for comparing two paired groups, based on the relative ranking of values between the pairs.
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within-subjects design |
A research design in which a single group of subjects is compared under different conditions or at different points in time (e.g., before and after surgery). |