Esl Methods Midterm

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“is still used my many teachers who are not native speakers of English and who feel less comfortable with their level of proficiency in English. The students’ L1 is used a great deal to explain the grammatical structures of English, to define vocabulary and to translate reading in English. Emphasis is on the development of reading, writing and grammar, with less concern for oral English language... This method usually involves memorizing long vocabulary lists out of context, deductive instruction of grammar in which rules are taught explicitly, practice of extensive verb conjugations that are committed to memory and reading literature passages through translation, with the teacher serving as an authority figure and providing immediate error correction.” (Ovando, Collier & Combs, 2003)

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Grammar- Translation

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“Developed in reaction to grammar-translation’s lack of emphasis on oral skills. Accelerated during World War II, when U.S. military personnel were in need of crash courses in communicative skills in foreign languages... Even with heavy criticism from cognitive linguists during the 1970s, many current ESL textbooks are heavily based on audiolingual methodology. ...Based on theories from structural linguistics and behavioral psychology, ESL is taught through mimicry and memorization and through repetitive, manipulative drills. Grammar structures are carefully sequenced and taught inductively, with immediate error correction. Tapes, language labs and visual aids are considered crucial for authentic implementation of this method. The audiolingual method has been heavily criticized for producing students who could model perfect sentences in English with nativelike pronunciation but could not use the language in a real communicative situation with native speakers. “ (Ovando, Collier & Combs, 2003)

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Audiolingual Method

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“Sometimes the term immersion is used in referring to this method but this use of the word should not be confused with immersion bilingual programs, in which there is always substantial native-language support in school. The direct method focuses on total immersion in L2 throughout each language lesson, with no use of L1 allowed in the L2 classrooms. New material is frequently presented through films, tapes and readings that are situational or organized around topics. ... The method does not focus on manipulative drills as does the audiolingual method. Instead, it involves an open-ended response to the materials the teacher brings into the classroom which leads the class towards a more natural acquisition process, focused on authentic activities.” (Ovando, Collier & Combs, 2003)

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Direct method

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“Caleb Gattegno developed the Silent Way, an approach that forces the teacher to be silent at least 90% of the time and to let students generate language on their own. There is no use of students’ L1 allowed during formal presentation of the lesson. Students begin with childlike experimentation with sounds. In an initial lesson, the teacher points to color-coded graphemes on charts that cover all visual representations of the phonemes in English. As students discover the sounds of the new language, precision with phonemes, stress, and intonation is reinforced through repetition and teacher signals, but with little teacher talk, with the teacher modeling a sound or expression only once. As the lesson progresses, Cuisenaire rods (color-coded by size and traditionally used for teaching math) are used to teach simple grammar points inductively. ...Students initiate and generate language that is teacher-guided and teacher-sequenced. Error correction is initiated by student peers... The key is that students help other students, with teacher guidance but not teacher control.” (Ovando, Collier, & Combs, 2003)

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Silent Way

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“Developed in Bulgaria by Georgi Lozanov, this method also emphasizes childlike experimentation with ESL. The physical setting must be relaxing and aesthetically pleasing. Music, art, drama, yoga, and physical exercise are used to encourage relaxation, stimulation of the subconscious and informal natural communication. On entering class, students accept a surrogate identity for role playing. Long dialogues are present in phases and include long spaces for silence with classical baroque music played in the background. Error correction is minimal. Students’ L1 may be used for explanations and discussion. A major goal is to tap students’ natural subconscious processes that will allow more retention in long-term memory. “(Ovando, Collier & Combs, 2003)

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Suggestopedia

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“Developed by Charles Curran, this method is based on principles from humanistic psychology. The most important goal is creation of a cooperative learning community, in which students are responsible for each other. On the first day, learners are seated in a closed circle ( a maximum of 6 students is ideal, with the resource person (the teacher, called the “knower”) outside the circle. The learners initiate conversation in L1 and the knower provides translation in L2, close to the student’s ear, in a clear, gentle, supportive voice. The sentences are taped. After 8 to 10 sentences the students and knower work with the material guided by the knower through occasional short silent periods followed by questions. ... This approach has received attention in publications but has been implemented in few classrooms due to the small preferred class size. The translation required in this method is not practical for an ESL class with students of many language backgrounds.” (Ovando, Collier & Combs, 2003)

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Community Language Learning

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“Developed by James Asher, this technique is very useful for the early stages of second language acquisition as one strategy to be incorporated into teachers’ repertoire of activities within current ESL approaches. The teacher gives a command and models the physical movement to carry out the command. In the first stages, students focus only on listening comprehension by responding to the commands with the appropriate physical movement. Speaking, reading, and writing the commands come soon after. Adding touch and movement to the stimulants of sight and sound increases the potential for storage into long-term memory. Many natural activities make use of mostly commands and can be successfully incorporated into lessons; for example, cooking, operating a machine, physical exercise, driving a car... Most teachers would agree that this technique cannot stand alone but can be used as one of many strategies for varied lesson. “(Ovando, Collier & Combs, 2003)

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Total Physical Response

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“Terrell and Krashen proposed a method of teaching second language that emphasizes the centrality of the acquisition process. Techniques in this approach focus on providing a context in the classroom for natural language acquisition to occur with acquirers receiving maximum “comprehensible input” and establishing the best conditions possible for reduction the affective factors that may inhibit students’ L2 acquisition. This is done through a teacher’s simplification of his/her speech, similar to modifications in caretaker speech... Other factors include (1) a focus on each students’ needs and desires, (2) little overt error correction, (3) avoidance of forcing production until acquirers are ready, and (4) a positive acceptance of the children’s native language, while modeling the second language. Traditional drills are not used. The focus is on communicative language use (oral and written), with all four language modes integrated into each lesson. Language is taught through meaningful content. “(Ovando, Collier & Combs, 2003)

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Natural Approach

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Based on the work of British linguist D. A. Wilkins, this method shifted from grammar/vocabulary to an emphasis on analysis of the communicative meanings used by learners to express themselves and understand others. Language can be categorized into notions, such as quantity, location and time, and functions, e.g., making requests, making offers and apologizing. A functional syllabus would be organized by individual functions and practiced with pair work, group work and role plays. (Bowen, Tim, 1984. Macmillan Publishers. The Onestop Magazine. http://www.onestopenglish.com/News/Magazines/Archive/functional.htm ) The focus is on communication and real world uses of language.

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Functional-Notional

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“Developed for training Peace Corps volunteers in the early 1960’s [sic] and adapted to college level instruction in 1967, the Rassias method is a combination of dramatic techniques, rhythmic drills, and energetic reinforcement strategies that make learning an engaging experience, while eliminating inhibitions. The Rassias method is widely used in clooeges and schools throughout the country and abroad. . . [One’s native language] is strictly verboten. ‘You eat, sleep, walk, run and speak in your language of study,’ Rassias says.” (The Rassias Center, 2011. Immerse Yourself: Ten Days that Will Make a Difference.)

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Madness Method/Rassias

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No Child Left Behind

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(2002) – testing required in certain grades, scores broken out by poverty, ethnicity, disability, LEP

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Texas English Language Proficiency standards

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(2007), ELPS

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Texas English Language Proficiency Assessment System

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(TELPAS): required for all LEP students even those who have waived special language program services

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Federal law requires

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schools to provide ELLs a program that includes both access to the curriculum and opportunities for English language development

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States are allowed

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to establish type of programs for ELLs - Bilingual or ESL

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Bilingual Programs (native language used)

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Transitional (for lang. minority students) – called Traditional in HISD
Maintenance (lang. min. students) – called Developmental in HISD
Immersion (lang. majority students) – goal is bilingualism
Two way immersion (lang. minority & majority students)
Newcomer programs (recent immigrants) Designed to support initial adjustment to the country, short term. Goal -- to prepare students to succeed in regular school setting.

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ESL Programs (L1 not used)

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ESL pullout - (language minority students) (instruction in English)
ESL class - (lang. min. students) (instruction in English)
Sheltered English immersion (for language minority students with some proficiency in English -- may have students with several different L1s)

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Linguistic terminology

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Pragmatics- study of how language is used to communicate
Semantics - study of linguistic meaning
Phonology - study of the sound system of language
Morphology - study of word formation
Syntax - word order
Phonemes - distinct sounds that make a difference in meaning.
Morphemes - building blocks of words, meaningful units.

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Behaviorist theory

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stimulus, response, imitation & association are essential processes of learning, reinforcement. Child’s mind seen as a tabula rasa. Problem is that the behaviorists can’t explain how children formulate novel utterances.

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Innatist theory

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Chomsky, a famous linguist, postulated innate biological device for learning language he called a language acquisition device. Felt that babies have a “grammar template” or universal grammar. “Children create sentences by using rules “ rather than through mere imitation.

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Interactionist theory

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Caregivers play important role by providing “conversational scaffolding”. Language develops over time. Both child and social environment are important. Nature and nurture

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Is 2nd language learned the same way as 1st?

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Behaviorists say yes. Audiolingual method, popular in the ‘60s, imitation, repetition, reinforcement.
Innatists agree - acquisition of L2 similar to L1. Proposed “creative construction” theory - that ELLs “creatively construct the rules of L2 in a manner similar to what happens in L1 acquisition.

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Krashen’s Five Hypotheses

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Based on Innatist theory.
Acquisition versus learning.
Monitor– formal study – 3 conditions needed
Natural order – the rules of a language acquired in a predictable order.
Comprehensible input – understandable but a bit beyond current proficiency level.
Affective filter - learning environment needs to be supportive and low anxiety. Focus should be on communication not form. “Silent period” should be allowed.

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Three Conditions for Developing the “Monitor”

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Sufficient time
Focus on grammatical form
Explicit knowledge of the rules

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What Makes a Standard?

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Content – what students should know and be able to do (TEKS)
Benchmarks – content expectations broken down by grade level
Performance Standards – progress indicators that describe how well students must do to meet the standard

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(WIDA)

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World-Class Instructional Design and Assessment Consortium: Four strands (LSRW) and five levels

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TESOL (2006)

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Based on WIDA
Five standards and five levels
English for social, intercultural and instructional purposes
The rest address success in ELA, math, science and social studies

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The 19 TAC §74.4

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English Language Proficiency Standards (ELPS), present English language proficiency standards that outline the instruction school districts must provide to ELLs in order for them to have the full opportunity to learn English and to succeed academically. 

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ELPS

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are to be implemented as an integral part of the instruction in each foundation and enrichment subject of the TEKS.

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Differentiating Instruction

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Requires
Knowledge of students – strengths, linguistic and literacy levels, learning preferences
Ongoing assessment – before, during, after instruction
Classroom climate – respectful and caring
Variety and flexibility in organization, materials and grouping

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Content-Based Instruction

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Involves:
-Modification in teacher language
-Explicit language instruction

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Sheltered Instruction (AKA)Specially Designed Academic Instruction in English (SDAIE)

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3 Key Features
Cognitively demanding content
Designed to promote English language and literacy development
Positive social and affective

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Techniques for Delivering SDAIE

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Carefully sequence instruction.
Modify language – rate, vocabulary, context.
Use nonverbal cues – gestures, visuals, props, etc.
Ensure that all students participate – active learning, regular monitoring and review, multiple entry points.
Plan for a variety of student interaction patterns.
Plan assessment to capitalize on student strengths.

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Cooperative Groups

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Jigsaw (Aronson, 1978)
Spencer Kagan (Kagan, 1994) structures to facilitate student learning
Structures are included for content tasks that promote teambuilding, classbuilding, mastery, thinking skills, information sharing, and communication skills.
Example: Think-Pair-Share, Numbered Heads Together

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Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)

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Zone of Proximal Development
What a child does with help today she will be able to do alone tomorrow.

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Jerome Bruner (1915 -- )

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Scaffolding
Support structured by the adult to help students successfully complete a task
Gradually withdrawn as students approach mastery of the skill or task

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Literacy Scaffolds

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Predictable texts/whole texts
Graphic organizers
Dialogue journals
Shared reading
Pattern writing

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Formal Assessment

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Standardized tests – norm-or criterion-referenced
Validity and reliability are established through field testing

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Informal Assessment

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Teacher-made tests,
miscue analyses,
checklists,
anecdotal observations,
student work samples

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Performance Assessment

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direct observation and measurement of the desired behavior
Texas Primary Reading Inventory, Tejas LEE, TAKS writing, TELPAS writing

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Principles for Authentic Assessment

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(Ruddell & Ruddell, 1995)
Based on authentic tasks
Tied directly to curriculum standards, instructional goals and teaching
Should take into account learner characteristics and needs
Collaborative – allow student self-evaluation
Multidimensional
Based on current research and theory about language, literacy and learning

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Teacher talk =

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65-95% of classroom discourse

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Michael Halliday (1985)

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Functions of Language:
Instrumental -- “I want”
Regulatory – “Do as I say”
Interactional – “Me and you”
Personal – “Here I come”
Heuristic – “Tell me why”
Imaginative “Let’s pretend”
Informative – “Let me tell you”
Divertive – “Enjoy this”

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Oral Language for Beginning

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Provide social-emotional support.
Nonverbal participatory responses may be allowed at very beginning.
Incorporate lots of small group activities.
“Uno, dos, tres, ya hablamos ingles”

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Oral Language for Intermediate

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Grammatical abilities are still developing.
Avoid the tendency to constantly correct them during a conversation.
Interact as appropriate while modeling correct grammar, syntax, word usage.

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Comprehensible Input

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Songs, games
Drama
Choral reading
Q. and A.
Show and Tell

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Activities to Develop Speaking

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Two-Way Tasks (paired activities – Describe and Draw is an example)
Task Analyses
Think-alouds
Oral Presentations – book reports, dialogues, debates, interviews, etc.

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Assessing Oral Language Development

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Characteristics of Assessment Instruments
Examine listening and speaking in English to document progress
Considerations for assessing day-to-day language activities
Classroom Functions
Interaction Patterns
Elements

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Key Features of Each Proficiency Level (TEA, 2009)

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Beginning
-Little or no ability
Intermediate
-Limited ability, simple language structures, high-frequency vocabulary, routine contexts
Advanced
-Grade appropriate, with second language acquisition support
Advanced High
-Grade appropriate, with minimal second language acquisition support

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Oral Language Proficiency Test Barriers to Success

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Story Retelling
Recalling Details
Reciting Numbers in Sequence
Irregular Plurals
Conjugating Irregular Verbs
Culturally-bound Items – “What season is Mother’s Day?”

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Reading readiness vs. emergent literacy perspective

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-Readiness involves motor skills not directly related to reading
-Emergent literacy identifies stages of literacy development

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First alphabet

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over 3,000 years ago by the Phoenicians

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Alphabetic Principle: Language sounds are represented by letters and letter sequences.

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Phoneme -- the smallest unit of sound that makes a difference in meaning in a language.
Grapheme -- the letter or letter combination such as “d” or “th” that represents that sound (Stahl, 1992).
Phonemic awareness- understanding that individual sounds that constitute spoken words. Different languages have different phonologies.

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Key Concepts about Print

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Print carries meaning.
Spoken words can be written down.
Written words can be spoken (read aloud).
In English, words are read from left to right, top to bottom.
Sounds are represented by letters.
Speech sequence corresponds to written sequence.
Sound/symbol correspondences are consistent, but English has many exceptions.

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Goals of Early Literacy

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Awareness and appreciation of purposes of reading and writing in everyday life
Understanding of relationships between print and oral language (includes alphabetic principle)
Knowledge of print conventions
Knowledge of specific sound-symbol correspondences
Ability to recognize a growing number of words on sight

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Shared Reading

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Uses large-size versions of a book
Students can observe teacher’s reading behaviors
Afterward, students practice with small versions of the text.

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Ferreiro & Teberosky (1982): How writing develops

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-Writing does not serve to transmit information. No distinction between writing and drawing.
-Fixed number and variety of characters. Letters of child’s own name often used.
-Each letter stands for one syllable. Vowels are stable and conventional.
-Children move from syllabic to alphabetic hypotheses.
-More consonants added to words.
-Children segment subject and predicate. Children notice characters within syllables. They begin to make orthographic distinctions between s and z, ll and y, and k, c and qu.

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Peregoy & Boyle (1989-90): How writing develops II

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Scribble writing
Pseudo letters
Letters
Pseudo words
Copied words
Self-generated words
Self-generated sentences

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Phonics

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Basic instructional principles
Provide ample opportunity for authentic writing
Base instruction on informal assessments
Embed phonics instruction in meaningful context
Teach spelling patterns rather than rules

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General sequence of phonics instruction

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Single initial consonants
Short and long vowels
Letter patterns and word families
Digraphs (two consonants/one sound; i.e., th) and blends (two consonants together that blend their sounds ; i.e., bl)
Syllabication

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Developmental Levels in Student Spelling

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Prephonetic
-Letters or letterlike forms bearing no relationship to speech sounds
Phonetic
-Letters represent sounds; words are decipherable
Transitional
-Conventional spellings are mixed with phonetic spellings
Conventional
-Most words are spelled conventionally

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Evaluating Emergent Literacy Development

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-Use several work samples gathered over time.
-Focus on what student can do.
-Checklists are a starting point. Unless they are mandated, feel free to adapt them to your context.

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Advance Organizer:

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Brief presentations of abstract concepts given before a lesson to help learners make connections between their existing knowledge and the new information to be presented.
Expository organizer- presents concepts and principles which will help create a bridge between what is already known and the new material.
Comparative organizer- (When material to be learned is somewhat more familiar) serves to integrate the new material with the similar material already understood, but the student focuses on how they differ.