Environmental Studies - As Level Unit 2 - The Physical Environment

Front 1

What is a chemoautotroph?

Back 1

An organism that gains its metabolic energy using energy from chemical reactions.

Front 2

State the gases present in the atmosphere and their proportions in the air, and explain their importance for life [7]

Back 2

- Nitrogen 78% {used in proteins}

- Oxygen 21% {used in aerobic respiration}

- Carbon dioxide 0.038% {used in photosynthesis}

- Rare gases 1%

- Methane 0.00017% {chemoautotroph as a source for carbon}

- Ozone 0.000007% {absorb UV in stratosphere}

- Water vapour 4% (up to) {water cycle}

Front 3

What is ozone?

Back 3

Triatomic oxygen

Front 4

Describe the term 'dynamic equilibrium'

Back 4

A combination of active processes that cancel out each other's effects so that there is no overall change.

Front 5

Describe the structure of the atmosphere with reference to the names of layers from altitude 0km to 100km

Back 5

Troposphere

Tropopause

Stratosphere

Stratopause

Mesosphere

Mesopause

Thermosphere

Front 6

How does the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere change over a 24 hour cycle?

Back 6

CO2 rises at night as respiration occurs but photosynthesis cannot. During day CO2 drops as as photosynthesis is more rapid then respiration. Fluctuations are greater in summer then in winter.

Front 7

Describe how temperature changes with increasing altitude in (A) the troposphere, and (B) the stratosphere

Back 7

(A) Declines with increasing altitude due to heating by infrared radiation from ground

(B) Increases with increasing altitude due to heating by UV from sun.

Front 8

What is Electromagnetic radiation?

Back 8

Energy in the form of waves with a range of frequencies.

Front 9

Describe nuclear fusion?

Back 9

The release of energy during the joining of nuclei of small atoms.

Front 10

What is global climate change?

Back 10

The various changes to the climate caused by increasing energy being retained in the atmosphere as a result of human activities.

Front 11

Describe the greenhouse effect?

Back 11

The natural processes by which Atmospheric gases allow visible light to pass through but absorb infrared energy, causing heating.

Front 12

State the 5 anthropogenic sources of greenhouse gases?

Back 12

- Carbon dioxide

- Methane

- Oxides of nitrogen

- Chlorofluorocarbons

- Tropospheric ozone

Front 13

What human activities carbon dioxide? [2]

Back 13

- Combustion of fossil fuels

- Deforestation

Front 14

What human activities release methane? [2]

Back 14

- Anaerobic bacteria in paddy fields landfill sites and the intestines of livestock

- Ventilation of coal mines, leaks from natural gas fields and pipelines

Front 15

What human activities release oxides of nitrogen into the atmosphere?

Back 15

Oxygen and nitrogen from air react at high temperatures in vehicle engines and power stations.

Front 16

What human activities release Chlorofluorocarbons into the atmosphere?

Back 16

CFCs were used as aerosol propellant, fire extinguishers, refrigerants, solvents and in expanded foam plastics.

Front 17

What human activities release tropospheric ozone into the atmosphere?

Back 17

Produced by the photochemical break down of NO2 and subsequent reactions with oxygen.

Front 18

What are the four main consequences of global climate change?

Back 18

- Sea level rise

- Climate in climate

- Ocean current changes

- Ecological changes

Front 19

Describe how global climate change can cause sea levels to rise?

Back 19

Thermal expansion caused by the warmer atmosphere, and melting of land ice which increases the volume of water in the sea (glaciers and antarctic ice shelves)

Front 20

Describe how wind patterns might change if the global climate changes

Back 20

Wind change velocity, frequency and direction. Stronger winds cause more storm damage. Rain distributed by wind falls in different areas.

Front 21

How might precipitation change if global climate change occurs?

Back 21

Higher temperatures cause Evaporation rates to increase, so increased precipitation rates. Areas that previously received rain my not as temperatures become to hot for water vapour to condense.

Front 22

Describe El Niño

Back 22

The reversal of the equatorial Pacific ocean current that normally flows westwards.

Front 23

Describe la niña

Back 23

The name given to the strengthening of the westward flowing equatorial Pacific ocean current.

Front 24

What is the benefit of winds blowing westward across the Pacific ocean near the equator (under normal circumstances)?

Back 24

Deep cold water drawn up near coast of south America. Water rich in nutrients causing algal blooms near the sea surface that feed a rich food web.

Front 25

(A) what is the north Atlantic conveyer, (B) name the two processes which drives the north Atlantic conveyer?

Back 25

(A) warm water from tropical Atlantic ocean travels north-east towards North-west Europe

(B) the prevailing winds blowing over the ocean surface and the sinking of water near the artic ocean as it cools and becomes denser

Front 26

How does global climate change reduce the strength of the North Atlantic conveyer?

Back 26

Land ice on Greenland melts and flows into sea diluting the slate water making it less dense and therefor making it more difficult for cold water to sink.

Front 27

Why might North-west Europe become much colder if the north Atlantic conveyer slows down?

Back 27

Current transfers heat energy from the tropics to North- West Europe producing a far warmer climate then what would be expected from a climate this far north.

Front 28

Describe ecological changes which might occur due to global climate change [5]

Back 28

- Plants grow faster due to temperature rises providing more food for butterflies, but toxins build up in leaves to protect plant earlier in year which could kill caterpillars.

- shallow root plants cope less well the deep rooted plants

- Species that hibernate may benefit from being to fed more of the year, or suffer by being disturbed more frequently

- wet land habitats could enlarge or shrink (due to precipitation changes)

- Ecological event timings such as flowering or migration may change which effects the survival of interdependent species

Front 29

Why might it not be possible for the distribution of species to change species to change as conditions change

Back 29

- May colonise new areas more slowly then they disappear from donations range (trees grow slowly)

- Suitable new land may not be available

- Human land use my block movement

- Species live in interdependent communities of species

Front 30

State some reasons why it is difficult to accurately predict likley changes associated with global climate change [5]

Back 30

- likley changes occur naturally so it's difficult to tell whether or not it's caused by human activity

- limited historical data from indirect sources

- Changes are slow, so difficult notice

- different changes occur in different locations at different times

- Lack of understanding how all the Earth's climate systems work

Front 31

What is a positive feedback mechanism?

Back 31

A situation where an initial change causes a reaction that increases the original change.

Front 32

What is a negative feedback mechanism?

Back 32

A situation where an initial change causes a reaction that reduces the original change.

Front 33

Describe some positive feedback mechanisms in which raised temperatures may cause? [5]

Back 33

- Increased rate of decomposition, causing more carbon dioxide to be released

- Reduced area of ice and snow, reducing albedo so less sunlight is reflected

- Warming of sea eventually causes methane hydrate from methane hydrate Sediments

- Melting permafrost release methane gas bubbles trapped in ice

- Peat soil becomes dryer making forest fires more frequent

Front 34

Describe some negative feedback mechanism in which raised temperatures may cause [2]

Back 34

- Increased rates of photosynthesis which stores more carbon in biomass

- Increased Evaporation causing the formation of more low-level cloud. Increase albedo reflecting sunlight away and reducing solar heating.

Front 35

What is the Kyoto Protocol?

Back 35

The international agreement intended to control emissions of greenhouse gases.

Front 36

Describe the term anthropogenic?

Back 36

Something made or caused by human activity.

Front 37

What strategies have been used to control global climate change in relation to carbon dioxide [4]

Back 37

- Energy conservation to reduce use of fossil fuels

- Use of alternative energy resources

- Carbon sequestration by planting more trees or storage of carbon from power station underground

- Kyoto Protocol emission reduction

Front 38

What strategies have been used to control global climate change in relation to methane [3]

Back 38

- Reduced dumping of waste in landfill sites

- Reduced livestock production

- Better collection of gas from coal mines and gas and from oil facilities

Front 39

What strategies have been used to control global climate change in relation to oxides of nitrogen [3]

Back 39

- Reduced use of internal combustion, such as more use of public transport

- Catalytic converters in vehicle exhausts

- Addition of urea to power station effluents or diesel engine exhausts

Front 40

What strategies have been used to control global climate change in relation to Chlorofluorocarbons [2]

Back 40

- Use of alternative materials: Butane or propane aerosol cans, HCFCs and HFCs in refrigerators, alcohols as solvents

- Use of alternative processes: Trigger and pump action spray cleaners, stick deodorants instead of aerosol cans

Front 41

What strategies have been used to control global climate change in relation to tropospheric ozone?

Back 41

Methods that reduce NO× emissions reduce the formation

Front 42

Briefly describe the Kyoto Protocol (1997)

Back 42

MEDC signed a legally bound treaty to reduce 6 Green house gas emissions, failure to do so lead s to permitted emissions being cut 30 per cent. Each county has their own quota, and extra allowance can be brought.

Front 43

Describe agricultural strategies used to cope with climate change [5]

Back 43

- Cultivate warner climate crops

- Cultivate Drought resistant crops

- Abandoned areas where irrigation is unsustainable

- Increase soil organic matter to increase water retention

- Water storage in times of water surplus for later irrigation use

Front 44

Describe how building design can be used to cope with climate change [2]

Back 44

- Better ventilation and cooling systems to reduce the use of air conditioning

- Paler materials to reduce heat absorption

Front 45

What strategies can be used to reduce flooding risk to cope with climate change [5]

Back 45

- Riverbank defences

- River barrages to protect against high tides

- Less buildings on flood plains

- Reduced runoff rates by reducing paved areas to increase infiltration

-River regulations dams

Front 46

What strategies can be used to cope with coastal erosion due climate change [2]

Back 46

- Improved coastal defences

- Managed retreat, abandon lower value areas that are more difficult to defend

Front 47

Since the 1970, how has reduction in atmospheric ozone been observed [2]

Back 47

- General reduction of 4 per cent over whole planet

- Ozone holes in Polar regions where their is an annual drop in stratospheric ozone concentrations

Front 48

Why is their a concern about ozone depletion?

Back 48

USB is absorbed and converted into chemical energy which breaks up biological molecules causing damage to DNA in exposed cells (skin cancer, cataracts, damage to plant tissue and marine plankton).

Front 49

Which type of UV light is (A) not absorbed by ozone, (B) Almost fully absorbed by ozone, (C) completely absorbed by ozone and normal oxygen?

Back 49

(A) UV A

(B) UV B

(C) UV C

Front 50

Describe the reactions which prevent a lot of UV B reaching the surface?

Back 50

UV B absorbed by diatonic and triatomic oxygen in photolytic relations where the molecules are split. Products are involved in further reactions

Front 51

Why is a chlorine atom very reactive?

Back 51

It is a chlorine radical, has an unpaired electron.

Front 52

Describe the reactions with chlorine which cause ozone depletion

Back 52

Chlorine radical reacts with ozone molecule to oxygen + Chlorine monoxide

Chlorine monoxide reacts with monotonic oxygen to make chlorine dioxide

CL2 break down and release chlorine again

Reactions start and end with a chlorine radical removing important starting materials that maintain dynamic equilibrium of the ozone layer

Front 53

What is the Montreal Protocol?

Back 53

International agreement that has controlled the release of ozone depleting substances.

Front 54

Why were CFCs used for years?

Back 54

Properties made them suitable for use such as chemically stability, liquefied with pressure, good solvents, non flammable or toxic.

Front 55

What were CFCs used for? [4]

Back 55

- Fluids for refrigerators

- Aerosol propellants

- Solvents

- Gases for expanded plastics

Front 56

How do CFCs cause damage the the ozone?

Back 56

Chlorine is very reactive so will rarely reach the stratosphere, CFCs are chemically stable so remain in the atmosphere for years and my eventually get carried up to stratosphere. CFCs broken down by UV which release chlorine.

Front 57

What did the Montreal Protocol do?

Back 57

Phased out manufacture of CFCs and other ozone-depleting substance such a bromine containing fire extinguisher propellants and 1,1,1 trichloroethane.

Front 58

Why are HCFCs used instead of CFCs

Back 58

They are less chemically stable, so break down before they reach the stratosphere.

Front 59

Why is ozone depletion greatest in the Polar regions?

Back 59

Chemical reactions involving chlorine occur most easily at low temperatures when ice crystals provide catalytic surfaces. When spring arrives crystals and sunlight cause ozone depleting reactions do occur.

Front 60

What other substance cause ozone depletion, but why are they less of an issue?

Back 60

High flying aircrafts release NOx into the stratosphere, but are relatively few so no obvious damage occurs.

Front 61

What is a hydrogen bond?

Back 61

The weak electrostatic bond formed between water molecules, which gives water a high boiling point.

Front 62

State the main properties of water? [4]

Back 62

- Changes of state

- Anomalous expansion

- Solvents properties

- High heat capacity

Front 63

Why is water a liquid at temperatures when it's low molecular mass would normally make it a gas?

Back 63

Shape and electron arrangement allow negative and positive parts of one molecule to form weak bonds with positive parts, producing groups of up to 4 molecules behaving like a larger molecule.

Front 64

What is residence time?

Back 64

The average length of time that molecule remain in a reservoir.

Front 65

Describe the term transfer rate

Back 65

The volume of material moved from one reservoir to another

Front 66

What drives the hydrological cycle?

Back 66

Solar energy

Front 67

What percentage quantity of water makes up (A) oceans, (B) Land ice, (C) Groundwater,(D) Lakes and rivers, (E) Soil moisture, (F) Atmosphere, (G) living organisms?

Back 67

(A) 97

(B) 2

(C) 0.7

(D) 0.01

(E) 0.005

(F) 0.001

(G) 0.00004

Front 68

Which type of reservoir has the most and least residence time?

Back 68

Ground water = 100 to 10,000 years

Living organism = 1 week

Front 69

Describe precipitation

Back 69

Condensation of atmospheric water vapour that reaches the Earth's surface in any liquid or solid form.

Front 70

Describe Throughflow

Back 70

The sideways movement of water in the ground.

Front 71

Describe Interception?

Back 71

Precipitation that does not reach the ground because it lands on vegetation.

Front 72

Describe infiltration

Back 72

The process by which surface water enters the ground between the particles of soil and rock.

Front 73

Describe percolation

Back 73

The movement of water between the particles of soil or rock.

Front 74

Describe groundwater flow?

Back 74

The movement of water through pore spaces and fissures in permeable rock.

Front 75

Describe river channel discharge?

Back 75

The volume of water flowing past a particular point on a river and is a product of cross-sectional area and mean water velocity.

Front 76

What is abstraction?

Back 76

The removal of water from the location where it was found.

Front 77

What are the main inputs to the hydrological cycle? [1]

Back 77

Precipitation

Front 78

What are the main sources of through flow in the hydrological cycle [4]

Back 78

- Interception

- Infiltration

- Percolation

- Groundwater flow

Front 79

What are the main outputs in the hydrological cycle [3]

Back 79

- Evaporation

- Transpiration

- River channel discharge

Front 80

What human activities impact inputs into the hydrological cycle?

Back 80

Impacts that change temperatures: global climate change, urban heat Islands.

Front 81

What human activities impact Interception of the hydrological cycle? [3]

Back 81

- Deforestation

- Afforestation

- Urbanisation

Front 82

What human activities impact infiltration of the hydrological cycle [2]

Back 82

- Soil compaction

- Urbanisation

Front 83

What human activities impact Percolation of the hydrological cycle?

Back 83

Soil compaction

Front 84

What human activities affect groundwater flow of the hydrological cycle [4]

Back 84

- Groundwater abstraction

- Artificial aquifer recharge

- Soil compaction

- Urbanisation

Front 85

What human activities impact Evaporation in the hydrological cycle? [2]

Back 85

- Reservoirs

- Increased temperatures

Front 86

What human activities impact Transpiration in the hydrological cycle?

Back 86

Vegetation changes

Front 87

What human activities impact river channel discharge in the hydrological cycle? [2]

Back 87

- Abstraction of water

- Flood drainage

Front 88

What proportion of global water use is (A) Agriculture, (B) Industry and (C) domestic uses?

Back 88

(A) 70%

(B) 15%

(C) 15%

Front 89

What does TSS stand for?

Back 89

The total amount of organic and inorganic materials suspended in a volume of water.

Front 90

What is irrigation?

Back 90

Artificial watering of plants, especially crops.

Front 91

Why do farmers irrigate crops? [3]

Back 91

- Maximise growth

- Aid nutrient uptake

- Prevent crops drying out

Front 92

Describe water quality requirements which need to be considered for water to be potable [8]

Back 92

- Turbidity

- PH

- Calcium content

- Pesticide concentration

- Heavy metal concentration

- Dissolved O2

- Chlorine retention

- E. Coli abundance

Front 93

What is a coliform count?

Back 93

A measure of sewage pollution based in the presence of the faecal bacterium E. Coli.

Front 94

Why is 'soft water' (low in calcium content) used for textile washing?

Back 94

Calcium reacts with soap to produce scum.

Front 95

Why does water used for powerstation boiler steam need to be absolutely pure?

Back 95

Mineral deposits would build up in boiler pipes and reduce water flow and heat exchange.

Front 96

Describe the water quality needed for spray irrigation?

Back 96

Low turbidity as sediments would block pipes, and no toxins as this could harm crops and consumers.

Front 97

What is the ideal range of PH for water and why?

Back 97

6.5 to 8.5 to make water taste pleasant, water too acidic can dissolve copper pipes.

Front 98

Why is chlorine added to water and how are chlorine concentration changed in the presence of other materials in water pipes?

Back 98

To keep it sterile, other materials reduce chlorine concentration so chloramines are added which gradually release more chlorine.

Front 99

Why must dissolved O2 levels be high?

Back 99

Low oxygen levels can make water smell musty or of hydrogen sulfide. Some toxic metals are more soluble in water with a low dissolved oxygen content.

Front 100

State 4 non-abstractive uses for water

Back 100

- Energy (HEP using kinetic energy of moving water, cooling condenser steam in fossil fuels and nuclear power)

- Transport

- Recreation (sailing, canoeing, holiday boating, sport fishing and swimming)

- Wildlife conservation (wetlands)

Front 101

Describe the term catchment area in terms of water use

Back 101

The area of land that collects water, which will flow down to the lowest point.

Front 102

State the main two conflicts which arise water use?

Back 102

- Abstracting and storing can cause problems for other users

- Other user groups in area my threaten water supplies

Front 103

How can the conflict between fishery interest and dams be resolved?

Back 103

'fish ladders' which allow fish to swim up and around the damn through a series of pools.

Front 104

What conflict do time and space zoning resolve?

Back 104

Conflicts relating to different uses such as motor boating versus fishing.

Front 105

How can abstraction affect trout populations?

Back 105

Abstraction from reservoirs reduces river flow downstream and reduce fluctuations increasing the build up of Sediment making conditions unsuitable for breeding.

Front 106

How can anaerobic conditions at the bottom of the lake cause pollution?

Back 106

Anaerobic conditions increase the solubility of heavy metals such as mercury and can build up in food chains downstream.

Front 107

Describe the conflicts that Syr Darya River in Asia has?

Back 107

Toktogul reservoir used to generate electricity. Downstream used for irrigation and want more released during summer.

Front 108

Describe the main features of a river that affect it's usefulness [4]

Back 108

- Total annual water flow (river discharge)

- Flow fluctuations

- Levels of natural contaminants

- Pollutants from human activities

Front 109

Why are rivers oftern the most convenient source of water? [2]

Back 109

- Long so easy accessible over a large land area

- Short residence time so self clean quickly

Front 110

What does the term Topography mean?

Back 110

The 3D shape of the landscape.

Front 111

State the factors which must be considered when choosing the location for a dam or reservoir? [9]

Back 111

- Topography

- Geology

- Catchment area

- Water supply

- Existing land use

- Pollution risk

- Sedimentation

- Infrastructure

- Estuarine barrages

Front 112

Describe the environment effects of building a reservoir?

Back 112

- Habitat change

- Changes in river flow

- Sedimentation

- Reservoir microclimate

Front 113

How does Geology effect whether a reservoir can be built or not?

Back 113

Rock beneath reservoir must be impermeable so that water cannot percolate into the rock. Rock should be strong enough to support the weight of a dam and Reservoirs without faults or seismic activity.

Front 114

What is the ideal Topography when considering to build a dam?

Back 114

Narrow exit to a large deep basin to hold a huge volume of water.

Front 115

How does catchment area affect reservoir location?

Back 115

Area of land over which falling rain will flow to, even if it's not rained recently more water form perviouso rain may be on its way to the reservoir.

Front 116

Why should the flooded area of land behind a dam not be a forest?

Back 116

Dead vegetation may decay anaerobically releasing methane and adding to global warming.

Front 117

What are dams across estuaries used to create?

Back 117

Freshwater lakes.

Front 118

Why is sedimentation important to consider in relation to reservoir location?

Back 118

Soil erosion in the catchment area can make the inflow river turbid resulting in Sedimentation gradually reducing the volume of water a reservoir can hold.

Front 119

How does building a reservoir cause changes to habitats?

Back 119

Flooding reservoir destroys previous habitats, however can create more valuable wetlands. Dams act as a barrier to sturgeon and salmon.

Front 120

How do reservoirs change river flow?

Back 120

Water may be abstracted reducing the volume but maintaining the flow regime. Water used to regulate flow reduces periods of lower flow important for species such as river Turtles. Periods of rapid flow are important to wash away sediments in grave pits in which salmon and trout lay eggs.

Front 121

Why might the lack of sediments being carried downstream cause problems (from building a reservoir)?

Back 121

Sediments important to fertilise floodplain downstream and to help build up river banks to counteract erosion.

Front 122

Describe the microclimate created by a reservoir?

Back 122

- Reduced temperature fluctuations (warmer in winter and colder in Summer)

- Higher wind speeds caused by water providing less friction

- Greater evaporation from reservoir increases humidity, cloud cover and precipitation downwind

Front 123

Describe the term porosity?

Back 123

A measure of the percentage of the volume of a rock that is space.

Front 124

Describe the term permeability?

Back 124

A measure of the rate at which a fluid, such as water, can flow though rock.

Front 125

What is an aquifer?

Back 125

A layer of rock that holds water.

Front 126

What porous rocks oftern form aquifers [3]

Back 126

- Chalk

- Limestone

- Sandstone

Front 127

State some impermeable rocks suitable for the rock below the water bearing rock in aquifers?

Back 127

- Granite

- Clay

Front 128

State the consequences of aquifer overuse [5]

Back 128

- Subsidence

- Changes in surface hydrology

- Ecological impacts

- Salt water incursion

- Reduced supplies

Front 129

What is osmotic dehydration?

Back 129

The loss of water, especially from crop roots, caused by the low water potential of soils with a high salt content.

Front 130

What is Subsidence?

Back 130

The collapse of the ground surface caused by undermining or reduction in aquifer rock volume following the over-abstraction if water

Front 131

Describe salt water incursion?

Back 131

Seawards flow of fresh water preventing sea water from flowing into the aquifer is reduced. This therefor causes seawater to flow into the aquifer.

Front 132

How may aquifer overuse cause changes in surface hydrology?

Back 132

Water table is lowered so flows from springs decline, flow into wetlands decline causing them to dry up.

Front 133

What ecological impacts does aquifer overuse have?

Back 133

A lowered water table will cause plants with a higher water requirement to die.

Front 134

Why is seawater only used in countries with an inadequate supply of fresh water?

Back 134

Desalination is energy intensive and therefore very expensive.

Front 135

State 8 methods used in freshwater treatment

Back 135

- Screens

- Sedimentation

- Aeration

- Flocculation/ coagulation and clarification

- Filtration

- Activated carbon filters

- Sterilisation

Front 136

Why are screens used in freshwater treatment?

Back 136

Metal grills or meshes used to remove floating vegetation, plastic and paper that would clog later processes.

Front 137

What is the purpose of Sedimentation in freshwater treatment?

Back 137

Allowing water to remain static enables suspended solids to settle.

Front 138

What is the purpose of aeration in freshwater treatment?

Back 138

To ensure a high dissolved oxygen content as anaerobic water sources may contain high levels of hydrogen sulfide (causing the smell of bad eggs).

Front 139

What is the purpose of flocculation/ coagulation and clarification clarification in terms of freshwater treatment?

Back 139

Electrostatic charges of clay particles neutralised by adding aluminium sulfates, allowing them to settle out in sedimentation.

Front 140

Why is filtration used in terms of freshwater treatment?

Back 140

Sand filters used to remove any remaining suspended solids and bacteria.

Front 141

What is the purpose of activated carbon filters in terms of water treatment?

Back 141

Used to remove organic chemicals such as pesticides and other substances that cause bad tastes.

Front 142

Why is Sterilisation important in terms of water treatment?

Back 142

To kill pathogens (using ozone, UV or chlorine).

Front 143

When should chlorine not be used to sterilise freshwater?

Back 143

Water from peaty sources contain organic matter which reacts with chlorine to produce toxic substances (such as carcinogenic trihalomethanes).

Front 144

What is the purpose of fluoridation in terms of water treatment processes?

Back 144

Adding fluorides to water to improve dental health.

Front 145

State the two methods used in seawater treatment?

Back 145

- Reverse osmosis

- Distillation

Front 146

Describe the process of reverse osmosis

Back 146

Saline water filtered through partially permeable membrane of very small polyamide tubes.

Front 147

State 4 factors which cause the demand for water to change?

Back 147

- Change in population size

- Industrialisation

- Changes in living standards

- Changes in attitude to water use

Front 148

What percentage of water use in the UK is used for (A) Domestic supply, (B) Agriculture, (C) Energy industry, (D) Manufacturing industry and (E) Service industry

Back 148

(A) 22

(B) 3

(C) 51

(D) 15

(E) 9

Front 149

What are the three main ways better use of water can be achieved?

Back 149

- Increase the total amount of water available for use

- Distribute water more effectively

- Use water more efficiently

Front 150

How does changes in living standards cause the demand for water to increase?

Back 150

In poorest communities, piped water supplies aren't an option some domestic water use is limited. With increased affluence appliances which use more water can be brought.

Front 151

How does attitude affect water use?

Back 151

In some countries (Australia) problem with water supplies encourages people to be more imaginative about how they collect and use water.

Front 152

Describe how water availability can be increased? [3]

Back 152

- Increased abstraction

- Catchment management

- Aquifer recharge

Front 153

How can the distribution of water be improved [2]

Back 153

- Reducing distribution losses

- Inter- Basin transfer

Front 154

What is the aim of catchment management?

Back 154

To make Avaliable water supplies more useful. For example using reservoirs to replenish and restore river water, prevention of pollution up stream.

Front 155

How can the use of water be made more efficient [3]

Back 155

- Metering

- Low water-Use appliances

- Recycling 'grey water' use

Front 156

Why might people but a brick in their cistern part of the toilet?

Back 156

To reduce the water used for each flush.

Front 157

What is a resource?

Back 157

The total amount of a material that can be theoretically exploited.

Front 158

Describe some examples of how the lithosphere provides resources and services [3]

Back 158

- Physical resources such as metal ores, minerals and fossil fuels

- Biogeochemical cycles which recycle essential biological elements such as carbon,nitrogen and phosphorous

- Through soil providing growth medium for plants

Front 159

What is the mantle?

Back 159

The molten and semi-molten layer of the earth between the crust and the core.

Front 160

What is the crust?

Back 160

The solid surface layer of the earth made up of plates of the crust that form the continents or the ocean floor.

Front 161

What are mineral resources?

Back 161

Rocks and fossil fuels that are removed from the crust to be used.

Front 162

State some examples of fossil fuels which are removed from the crust?

Back 162

- Coal

- Crude oil

- Natural gas

Front 163

State some examples of metals which can be remove from the crust and describe their uses and properties [4]

Back 163

- Iron = construction (buildings, ships, road vehicles) {malleable, rusts, forms alloys}

- Aluminium = Packaging, vehicles and construction {malleable, strong with low density, good conductor of heat and electricity, Corrosion-restsiant}

- Copper = Electric cables and water pipes {Malleable, very good electrical conductor, corrosion-resistant}

- Chromium = stainless steel {form alloys, corrosion-resistant}

Front 164

State some non-metal minerals which can be removed from the crust and describe their uses and properties [7]

Back 164

- Sand = builder's mortar, class {fine grained filler, transparent in thin sheets}

- Gravel = concrete {coarse-grained filler}

- China clay = paints, filler in paper {very fine-grained, inert}

- Clay = pottery, roof tiles {waterproof when baked, easily moulded}

- Limestone = building blocks, cement {hard, easily cut and crushed}

- Granite = road kerbs, kitchen worktops {hard, resistant to wear}

- Slate = roof slates {waterproof, splits to form thin flat sheets}

Front 165

Describe what an igneous rock is?

Back 165

Rock or processes involving molten rock.

Front 166

What is a batholith?

Back 166

A large underground mass of solidified molten magma.

Front 167

What is regolith?

Back 167

The solid rock particles left after weathering.

Front 168

What is alluvial?

Back 168

Materials such as soil or weathered rock particles deposited by a river or other flowing water.

Front 169

What are places deposits?

Back 169

Deposits of dense minerals carried by water (tin and gold).

Front 170

What are metamorphic rocks?

Back 170

Rocks changed by intense heat and pressure, but without fully melting.

Front 171

What does the term sedimentary describe?

Back 171

Materials or processes that involve materials being carried by air or water and deposited.

Front 172

How are fined grained rock such as basalt formed?

Back 172

Friction, heat and pressures cause magma to be forced towards the surface, reaching the surface as an ingenious extrusion and cooling rapidly.

Front 173

Describe how minerals such as iron, tin, copper, and lead are formed?

Back 173

Fissures formed around batholiths allow hot mineral containing solutions to escape towards the surface. As the solution cools, minerals deposited in a predictable way according to their solubility.

Front 174

Describe how metamorphic processes form rocks such as slate (from sedimentary shale, made form clay)?

Back 174

Existing rock exposed to extreme heat and pressure from nearby igneous activity charge form without melting.

Front 175

Name what rock is made from chemical precipitates in the deep ocean made by the sedimentary process?

Back 175

Manganese nodules

Front 176

How are tin ore, gravel, sand and clay formed?

Back 176

Alluvial despots carried by flying water and deposited when the water slows down.

Front 177

What is a reserve?

Back 177

The proportion of a resource that can be economically exploited with existing technology.

Front 178

What is overburden?

Back 178

Unwanted material on top of the mineral deposit that is to be exploited.

Front 179

What factors affected mine viability? [4]

Back 179

- Land conflicts

- Extraction costs

- Processing costs

- Market economies

Front 180

State properties of a mine which affect extraction costs [4]

Back 180

- Overburden

- Depth

- Form of the mineral deposit

- Hydrology

Front 181

Why does the depth of the deposit affect mining costs?

Back 181

If Depth doubles mining costs more then double, the mine cannot be vertical due to risk of collapse so the amount of room that must be removed to reach the mineral rises rapidly.

Front 182

Why does cost increase more if the overburden is lose?

Back 182

The gradient must be gentle.

Front 183

How does the form of a deposit effect mining costs?

Back 183

I mineral is found in thin layers, or dispersed irregularly then the size of the mine void that would need to be excavated increases.

Front 184

What is the cut-off-ore grade?

Back 184

The lowest of ore that can be exploited economically.

Front 185

What might increase the processing costs of a mineral [2]

Back 185

- Chemical form of a mineral = elements combined with ore may need more energy to break bonds

- Purity

Front 186

What affects transport cost if mining, and how can the transport costs be reduced?

Back 186

Distance to market, ease of bulk transport and the presence of an suitable existing transport infrastructure.

Bulk transport by rail or large ship using existing transport systems, processing mineral before its transported.

Front 187

Why is exploring deposits in regions that already have mines easier?

Back 187

Easy access due to existing infrastructure for transport, energy, equipment supplies and a trained workforce.

Front 188

How do market economies affect mine viability?

Back 188

Market price is controlled by demand and supply, supplies can rise and fall rapidly. This mismatch causes prices to fluctuate.

Front 189

Briefly describe the history of mining?

Back 189

Flint found on surface. when supplies exhausted shallow pits dug. Pits got deeper and become vertical shafts with horizontal and seams using humans labour as energy. Steam engines pumped water making very deep shafts possible. Machinery become more economically viable and open cast-mining methods are now mainly used.

Front 190

State the environmental impacts of mineral exploitation [7]

Back 190

- Exploration

- Land impacts

- Habitat loss

- Pollution

- Flooding

- Subsidence

- Traffic congestion

Front 191

How does exploration, in terms of mineral exploitation have environmental impacts?

Back 191

Marine seismic surveys cause loud vibrations, disturbing whales. Land exploration involves land clearance and and vegetation loss.

Front 192

Describe the land impacts of mineral exploitation?

Back 192

Land take is larger then the area of the mine void. Land needed for associated buildings, access routes, overburden dumping and buffer zone.

Front 193

How can mineral exploitation cause habitat loss?

Back 193

Capturing wild animals and transplanting plants to unthreated habitats is rarely successful.

Front 194

How can habitat loss be delt with, in relation to mineral exploitation?

Back 194

Habitat restoration when mining has ended or creating new habitats, often has a greater value then previous habitats.

Front 195

How can loss of amenity be delt with in relation to mineral exploitation?

Back 195

Landscaping and tree planting.

Front 196

State the types of pollution associated with mineral exploitation [5]

Back 196

- Dust

- Noise

- Turbid drainage water

- Toxic leachate

- Spoil disposal

Front 197

What is leachate?

Back 197

Liquids and dissolved materials such as fertilisers washed through the ground, usually downwards.

Front 198

(A) How is dust pollution caused in relation to mineral exploitation, (B) how can dust pollution be removed?

Back 198

(A) Dust raised into the atmosphere by blasting and vehicle movements

(B) water sprays

Front 199

In relation to mineral exploitation (A) what causes noise pollution, (B) how can noise pollution be reduced?

Back 199

(A) Mine vehicle and rock blasting

(B) Baffle mounds

Front 200

In relation to mineral exploitation (A) what causes turbid drainage water, (B) how can the turbidity of drainage water be reduced?

Back 200

(A) small particles carried away in drainage water (chokes filter feeding animals)

(B) keeping drainage water in a lagoon, suspended solids settle out.

Front 201

In relation to mineral exploitation (A) what cause toxic leachate, (B) how can toxic leachate be reduced?

Back 201

(A) toxic metal oxidised in spoil heap becomes soluble, drainage water carries it into nearby river

(B) drainage water can be collected and evaporate in hot areas, or passes through a filter bed of crushed limestone

Front 202

In relation to mineral exploitation (A) what problems do soil heaps cause, (B) how can the problem be reduced?

Back 202

(A) Instable causing landslides or erosion

(B) Drainage of rainwater by pipes in the base prevents it becoming waterlogged, which would make it more likley to slip. Compaction and landscaping increase stability

Front 203

In relation to mineral exploitation (A) what is flooding caused by, (B) how can the effects be reduced?

Back 203

(A) Drainage water if pumped out rapidly or stored behind poorly constructed dam

(B) Contaminant lagoons behind a well-constructed dam with carefully timed releases

Front 204

In relation to mineral exploitation (A) what cause subsidence, (B) how can subsidence be reduced?

Back 204

(A) Poor soil compaction or undermining of sensitive land uses by deep mines

(B) Compaction of soil, and support pillars in deep mines

Front 205

In relation to mineral exploitation how can traffic congestion be reduced?

Back 205

Using routes to avoid urban areas, building separate access routes or using alternative methods of transport such as railways.

Front 206

State methods to increase the lifetime of existing reserves and converting new parts of resource into exploitable reserves for the future [6]

Back 206

- Increased exploration

- Better exploratory techniques

- Mechanised mining techniques

- Exploitation of low grade ores

- Recycling

- Substitution

Front 207

Describe some examples of where mining is expensive to exploit or banned [3]

Back 207

- Arctic national wildlife refuge in Alaska is protected

- Commercial mineral exploitation banned in Antarctica by the Antarctic treaty

- Right to exploit manganese nodules not fully established, so few companies willing to invest

Front 208

State exploratory techniques uses for finding new mineral deposits [5]

Back 208

- Remote sensing

- Gravimetry

- Magnetometry

- Seismic surveys

- Core sampling

Front 209

Describe remote sensing?

Back 209

Satellite and aerials survey large areas quickly, providing information on topography, rivers and surface geological features. Colour infrared emission indicate possible mineral content of surface and rocks.

Front 210

What is (A) Gravimetry and (B) Magnetometry?

Back 210

(A) the strength of gravity providing information of density of rock's (igneous more dense then sedimentary)

(B) strength of magnetism helps detect magnetic rocksike iron ores

Front 211

Describe seismic surveys?

Back 211

Echoes of surface vibrations providing information on depth, angle, density and thickness of rock strata.

Front 212

Describe core sampling?

Back 212

A grid of core samples to collect data on the exact content of the deposit, depth, purity and chemical form.

Front 213

Describe how copper can be extracted from leachate (exploitation of low grade ores)?

Back 213

Copper leachate water from spoil heaps can be concentrated by evaporation then separated by electrolysis.

Front 214

Describe how copper can be extracted from Copper sulfide heaps (in the exploitation of low grade ores)

Back 214

This bacillus bacteria oxidise the sulfer and produce an acidic solution that leaches out the copper.

Front 215

Describe how recycling can increase the lifetime of existing reserves?

Back 215

Reduces demand of reserves that are still in the ground.

Front 216

Describe some examples of substitution in relation to mineral resources? [2]

Back 216

- Plastics used for domestic water pipes

- Fibres optics telecommunications cables instead of copper

Front 217

Describe Eutrophication?

Back 217

The nutrient enrichment of a water body.

Front 218

Why is carbon the basis of life?

Back 218

It is the only element that can form long chains of atoms and therefor produces a variety of compounds.

Front 219

What are the 6 major processes in the carbon cycle?

Back 219

- Photosynthesis

- Respiration

- Food chains (pass organic compounds between organisms)

- Fossilisation

- Combustion

- Volcanoes

Front 220

What is homeostasis?

Back 220

The combined processes that maintain balance in a living organism or the environment.

Front 221

What is the gaia hypothesis?

Back 221

A theory that considers the earth to be a single, self-regulating system.

Front 222

Describe the role of photosynthesis in the carbon cycle

Back 222

Photosynthesis captures Light energy using chlorophyll pigments. Converts low energy substances (CO2) into higher energy carbohydrates releasing oxygen as a bi product.

Front 223

Describe the role of respiration in the carbon cycle?

Back 223

Respiration releases energy from high- energy substances to drive metabolic processes. Aerobic releases carbon dioxide, anerobic release methane.

Front 224

Describe Fossilisation in terms of the carbon cycle?

Back 224

Incomplete decomposition of organisms under anaerobic conditions. Leads to deposition of fossil fuels. Marine organisms absorb carbon dioxide and at ire it in their exoskeleton which are laid down as sediments.

Front 225

Describe how humans impact the carbon cycle? [7]

Back 225

- Combustion of fossil fuels increases atmospheric carbon dioxide levels

- Coal and gas mines, plus soil processing release methane

- Deforestation reduces carbon stored in biomass and photosynthesis

- Anaerobic bacteria in livestock intestine release methane

- Anaerobic bacteria in paddy field release methane

- Soil disturbance by ploughing increases rate of decomposition

- Global climate change increase decomposition and photosynthesis, melts perma frost.

Front 226

What is nitrogen used for?

Back 226

Protein synthesis to make enzymes, cell membranes and hormones. A component of DNA, RNA and chlorophyll.

Front 227

What are the major processes in the nitrogen cycle? [7]

Back 227

- Ionising phenomena

- Chemical reduction

- Food chains

- Nitrification

- Dentrification

- Leaching

- Plant roots absorbing nitrates

Front 228

What is the ionising phenomena in relation to the nitrogen cycle?

Back 228

Events that provide energy for atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen to react producing oxides of nitrogen such as lighting or forest fires.

Front 229

Describe chemical reduction in terms of the nitrogen cycle?

Back 229

Nitrigen to ammonia carried out by micro-organisms during nitrogen fixation.

Front 230

Describe Nitrification in terms of the nitrogen cycle?

Back 230

Oxidation of ammonium ions to nitrites, then to nitrates by nitrfying bacteria in soil.

Front 231

Describe Dentrification in terms of the nitrogen cycle?

Back 231

The chemical reduction of nitrates in the soil to nitrigen and nitrigen oxide gases by anaerobic denitrifiying bacteria.

Front 232

Describe Leaching?

Back 232

Loss of soluble substances such as nitrates from the surface layers if soil as it is carried away by water.

Front 233

What human activities effect the nitrogen cycle? [6]

Back 233

- Harber process converts nitrogen into ammonia

- Nitrate fertilisers increase leaching

- Drainage increases aerobic nitrifying bacteria, reduces number of anerobic

- Soil disturbance increases decomposition releasing more ammonium into soil and change abundance of bacteria

- legumes increase levels of nitrogen compounds in soil

- NOx released by combustion processes which can be washed into soil as rain

Front 234

Why is phosphorous important?

Back 234

Component of bones, proteins, ATP, DNA and RNA.

Front 235

What make she phosphorous cycle different to the carbon and nitrogen cycle?

Back 235

The atmosphere is not involved.

Front 236

Briefly describe the phosphorous cycle?

Back 236

Dissolved phosphates absorbed by plants, passed along food chains. Phosphates excreted or found in decaying matter either reabsorbed by plants or lost to sediments.

Front 237

What is absorption?

Back 237

The attachment of a material onto a surface.

Front 238

How does size of particle effect soil properties In relation to (A) Drainage, (B) Water content, (C) Aeration, (D) Nutrient levels and (E) Root penetration?

Back 238

(A) Sandy soils = larger pore spaces aiding water drainage

(B) Clay soils have slower drainage to water retained and absorbed

(C) Sandy soils Better drained so higher air content

(D) Leeching of nutrients in sandy soils, clay particles have negative surface charge, positively charged nutrient ions absorb onto surface

(E) Sandy soils loser, so roots penetrate more easily

Front 239

State the 5 components of soil?

Back 239

- Mineral skeleton of soil

- Air in soil

- Soil water

- Living organims

- Dead organic matter

Front 240

What are dentrivores, name some examples, and describe their function?

Back 240

Organims that feed on dead organic matter, oftern in or on the soil

Earthworms, millipedes, woodlice

Break down dead organic matter that can be further digested by decomposers

Front 241

What are decomposers?

Back 241

Micro-organisms, such as bacteria and fungi, which break down and digest dead organic matter.

Front 242

What is soil structure?

Back 242

The characteristics of a soil based on the aggregation of soil particles on peds.

Front 243

What is ped?

Back 243

The basic unit of soil structure where particles of sand, silt, clay and humus form aggregates.

Front 244

What is soil texture?

Back 244

The characteristics of a soil based on the proportion of the mineral particles that are sand, silt and clay.

Front 245

How does (A) Aeration, (B) Water drainage, infiltration and retention, (C) Thermal capacity, (D) Soil structure (crum, blocky, platy peds) and (E) PH fertility and productivity of the soil?

Back 245

(A) Aerobic processes such as decomposition and microbial nutrient cycling occur rapidly in aerated soil

(B) Water essential to enable nutrient absorption

(C) Affects how soon growth can occur in spring and rates of biology and chemical reactions

(D) Platy peds reducing aeration, crumb peds improve drainage and root penetration improving fertility

(E) Extreme acid or alkali will denature root cell proteins, acid makes nutrients more soluble so ideal is 5.5 to 6.5 pH

Front 246

State the 3 different soil structures?

Back 246

- Crumb

- Blocky

- Platy pled