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109 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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RADIONUCLIDE
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Nucleide (an atom that exists for a measurable length of time) that decays, producing radioactive particles/rays. May be natural/synthetically produced
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RELATIVE RISK
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Estimate of the magnitude of an association between exposure and disease and indicates the likelihood of developing the disease in those exposed relative to those unexposed.
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SIEVERT (Sv)
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Unit equivalent dose of radiation which relates the absorbed dose in human tissue to the effective biological damage of the radiation. A milisievert (mSv) is 1/1000 of a sievert.
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BEST PRACTICE ENVIRONMENTAL OPTION (BPEO)
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Identifies the preferred waste route in order to minimize harm and ensure the protection of the environment.
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BIAS
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Any error that results in a systematic deviation from estimation of the allocation b/t expsure and outcome
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CONFOUNDING
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Situation in which an estimate of the association between a risk factor (exposure) and outcome is is disturbed b/c of the association of the exposure with another risk factor (a confounding variable) for the outcome under study.
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LANDFILL
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Method of solid waste disposal in which refuse buried b/t layers of soil or site used for such disposal.
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WASTE HIERARCHY
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Methods of waste disposal from reduce (best) to disposal (worst).
Reduce, re-use, recycle, energy recovery, disposal. To be sustainable, waste management scheme must include all aspects of waste from production to disposal. |
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PROXIMITY PRINCIPLE
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Encourage waste disposal as near to place of production as possible.
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WASTE PICKERS
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Micro-economies develop to pick over waste (whether collected or not) and selling on any reusable/recyclable material; often children and health concern.
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EUTROPHICATION
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Enrichment of an ecosystem by plant nutrients, leading to possible new species change, decreased biodiversity, and toxicity
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PERI-URBAN
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On the urban margins.
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WATER-BASED DISEASE
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Caused by disease-causing agents that spend part of their life cycle inside an intermediate aquatic host.
Skin penetration (schistosomiasis-snails) or ingestion (guinea worm-cyclops water flea ingested in water releases worm to make blister and release eggs into water). |
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WATER-BORNE DISEASE
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Caused by transmission of disease in drinking water. Fecal-oral.
Intestinal helminthic infections (ascaris/round, trichuris/whip, necator/hook), diarrheal disease, poliomyelitis. |
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WATER-RELATED VECTOR-BORNE DISEASES
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Diseases spread by insects that either breed in water or are found nearby.
Malaria (anopheles), Filariasis (Culex/Anopheles mosquitoes spread parasites that block lymph->elephantitis/hydrocele in unsanitary conditions), Dengue (Aedes aergypti in artificial water), Yellow fever (tend to be epidemics), Onchocerciasis/river blindness (microfilaria spread by blackflies and death parasite leads to blindness unless ivermectin; also pesticides work) |
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WATER SCARCITY
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Not enough water to supply all users' needs.
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WATER WASHED
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Diseases which could be prevented through provision of increased quantities.
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PARTICULATES
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particulat matter, aerosols, or fine particles are tiny particles of solid/liquid suspended in the air.
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PATIENT CHARACTERISTICS
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Inherited characteristics (ie blood type), behavioral (ie smoking/diet), or environmental (ie asbestos exposure), assoc w/ inc/dec probability/risk of developing a disease/outcome.
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PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG
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Reaction of hydrocarbons (ie gasoline/methane) with nitrous oxide gases in sunlight that may lead to dec visibility.
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PRIMARY POLLUTANT
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Chemical added directly to atmosphere from natural/human activity.
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SECONDARY POLLUTANT
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Chemical formed in the atmosphere when primary pollutants react w/ air, chemicals or sunlight.
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SMOG
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Mixture of smoke and fog.
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ATTRIBUTABLE RISK FUNCTION
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Proportion of disease among the exposed that is attributable to the exposure.
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BIOMASS
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Animal dung, wood, or crop residues.
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BIODIVERSITY
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Variability among living organisms including variability within and between species and w/i and b/t ecosystems
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DRIVING FORCES
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Factors that create the circumstances in which environmental health conditions develop or are diverted.
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HAZARD
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A factor or exposure that may adversely affect health.
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RISK
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The probability that an event will occur.
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RISK TRANSITION
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The process by which societies move from exposure to traditional hazards to exposure to modern hazards.
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CLIMATE CHANGE
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A statistically significant variation in either the mean state of the climate or in its measurable variability, persisting for an extended period (typically decades or longer).
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ECOSYSTEM
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A functioning, interacting system of living organisms in relation to their physical, chemical, and biological environment.
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EQUITABLE DEVELOPMENT
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Development based upon principles of equity.
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EQUITY
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Fairness, defined in terms of equality of opportunity, provision, use or outcome.
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EXPOSURE
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Degree to which a person is subject to a given RF.
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INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
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The use of new sources of E from fossil fuels and the employment of new technology in the development of manufacturing industry and agricultural production.
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PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE
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A principle that advocates the use of prudent social policy in absence of empirical evidence in an attempt to solve a problem.
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VECTOR
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An organism (ie insect) that transmits a pathogen from 1 host to another.
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ENVIRONMENT
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Physical, biological, social, and cultural conditions affecting people's lives and the growth of plants and animals
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HEALTH
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State of physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely absence of disease/infirmity.
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SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
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Meeting needs of present generation w/o compromising ability for future generations to meet their needs.
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What are the Main Components of Air Pollution and Sources
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1. Particulates: industry, biomass, incineration, emissions. Resp, lung ca, eye irritation, loss of envir visibility. Gas cleaning, <coal & biomass, separate industrial from residential, controlled incineration.
2. Sulphur oxides (SO2, SO3): biomass, fossil fuel (esp coal), emissions. Acid rain, cardio-resp problems. Reduce coal, fluidized-bed combustion 3. CO: incomplete combustion in exhaust/biomass, industry. Nerve & brain dysfunct, cardiac, LBW. Control emissions (catalytic converters, public transport) 4. Nitrogen oxides (NOx): transportation, biomass & fossil fuel, smoking. Plant damage, photochemical smog, resp problems. Control emissions (catalytic converters, dec traffic; much is secondary rxn. 5. HC's & photochemical oxidants (ie ozone, aldehydes): from emissions, industry, incineration, solvent evaporation. Resp prob, ENT irritation, plant damage, photochemical smog. Catalytic converters & fuel efficiency 6. Pb: emissions (petrol), behav/brain, use unleaded petrol |
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What are the main sources of pollution for particulates, the health effects, and how can we decrease this?
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Particulates: industry, biomass, incineration, emissions. Resp problems, lung ca, eye irritation, loss of visibility. Improve by gas cleaning, <coal & biomass, separate industrial areas from residential, controlled incineration.
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What are the main sources of pollution for sulphur oxides, the health effects, and how can we decrease this?
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biomass, fossil fuel combustion (esp coal), emissions. Cause acid rain (damage vegetation & buildings), corrosion metals, cardio-resp problems. Reduce use of coal, fluidized-bed combustion
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What are the main sources of pollution for CO, the health effects, and how can we decrease this?
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incomplete combustion in exhaust & biomass burning, industry. Nerve & brain dysfunction, cardiac problems, LBW, death. Control emissions (catalytic converters, public transport.
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What are the main sources of pollution for Nitrogen oxides (NOx), the health effects, and how can we decrease this?
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transportation, biomass & fossil fuel combustion, smoking. Plant damage, photochemical smog, resp problems. Control emissions (catalytic converters, dec traffic; much is secondary rxn.
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What are the main sources of pollution for hydrocarbons and photochemical oxidants (ie ozone, aldehydes) the health effects, and how can we decrease this?
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HC's & photochemical oxidants (ie ozone, aldehydes): from emissions, industry, incineration, solvent evaporation. Resp prob, ENT irritation, plant damage, photochemical smog. Catalytic converters & fuel efficiency
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What are the main sources of pollution for lead (ie ozone, aldehydes) the health effects, and how can we decrease this?
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Pb: emissions (petrol), behav/brain, use unleaded petrol
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How have most industrialized cities in HIC cleaned up air
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Legislation. Most pollution from industry but rural areas have problems too. Rural >burn biomass fuel vs urban fossil fuel emissions (petrol, diesel, coal) from transport and power stations
Difference in pollution: HIC's: <biomass, >transport-related and industrial pollution LIC's and MICs: more biomass burning, transport, and fossil fuel-burning power stations |
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How do air pollutants enter body and what differences are there in ways in which primary pollutants affect health?
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Large particles=irritant causing/exacerbate resp sx
Small particles=carry toxic metals into lungs leading to cancer/nerve damage |
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Besides human health danger, what other environmental damage caused by air pollutants
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Reduce solar radiation and visibility, settle on vegetation and dec photosynthesis; damage materials (textiles, metals). High conc of sulphur oxides damage paint, metal, limestone, marble and responsible for acidic precipitation. Ozone and HC's damage plants and cause photochemical smog.
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Give examples of secondary pollutants
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Low-level ozone and nitrogen dioxide. Small quanities of NO2 emitted by vehicles but most is oxidation of NO by ozone and and hydroperoxy radical. NO2 also precursor of ozone (O3) when catalyzed by sunlight.
High levels of NO2 assoc w/ low levels ozone and vice versa. Ozone highest in peri-urban and rural |
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How has urban pollution changed
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early 20th century sulphur dioxide from burning coal-->acidic smog; now bans in urban areas dec and main problem is photochemical smog from traffic-related emissions
China dec c |
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Distinction b/t health effects of acute and LT exposure to air pollution
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Acute: Inc hospital admissions, GP consults, deaths, esp those with severe cardio-resp diseases, arrhythmias, worsening HF, trigger acute athero/ischemic CV complications; use time-series studies; may underestimate deaths attributable
Long: use cohort/cross-sectional as can't quatify chronic effects from daily time-series studies. Years of life lost in US polluted cities 1.8-3.1, Lung ca, asthma, inc non-traumatic deaths in India in rise in air pollution levels. |
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Study designs of health effects of air pollutants
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1) lab studies (sm # subjects (animal/human) but detailed exam on physio & toxic effects of diff pollutants to help est mechanism);
2) population studies (time series analysis and geographic comparisons w/ lg # subject and link pollutants and health in general envir). Examine past exposure w/ location over time via time-series analysis and can make assoc b/t pollution and health. -allows comparison of daily changes in pollution & health -methodologically sound if population remains constant -require adjustment for time-varying RF's including trends, season, day of week, temperature -estimates only acute effects reflecting exacerbation of disease -key factor in developing causal hypothesis |
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Barriers to policy making
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uncertainty over importance of air pollution in year of life lost (harvesting), reluctance to give up private transportation, limited options of alternative E in some places, political inertia
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What factors should be considered in setting standards for air pollution?
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1. physical (Pb-free gas, catalytic converter, emissions testing)
2. economic (tax ownership, usage/fuel, and congestion) 3. behavioral (mass transit and alternative travel methods and encourage alternative fuels) 4. Consider meteorology, topography, SES, ID exposed, involve local and national govt |
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3 main types of air quality standards
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1. measurement of ambient air quality with concentrations of major pollutants measured separately
2. overall quality of air 3. emission limits for industrial plants Primary standards: set emissiln limits to protect public w/ adequate margin of safety Secondary standards: set at even higher level Standards vary b/t and w/i countries as each interprets evidence and analysis of cost/benefit of setting standards at particular levels All usually use 1-, 8-, 24-hour limits. Countries have diff pollutants as priorities in std-setting. Availability of technology and differences in political will influences final stds. Need multidisciplinary approach |
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ATTRIBUTABLE RISK FUNCTION
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The proportion of disease among the exposed that is attributable to the exposure.
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BIOMASS FUEL
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animal dung, wood, or crop residues
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Give examples of traditional and modern hazards assoc w/ indoor environment
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Traditional: indoor air pollution from biomass fuels, inadeq sanitation, overcrowding.
Modern: indoor air pollution from tobacco smoke, asbestos, radon, cleaning solutions, use of gas applicances, chemicals used in furnishings, etc |
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Hazards of indoor envir and populations at risk
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HIC:
1. radon: those who live/work there-->lung ca 2. office & commercial buildings: workers-->sick building syndrome (from heat/vent/AC systems or building materials, molds), asthma 3. private residences: gen pop--->solvent-related sx, legionnaires LIC/MIC 1. homes w/ biomass fuel for cook/heat: women and kids inc risk-->acute resp inf; COPD; lung cancer |
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Problems w/ building design, materials, construction for health risk:
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Accidents from injury in design/building materials (asbestos and formadehyde--mesothelioma/ca and resp irritant, construction(subject fire/flood, radon near granite)
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Importance of indoor temperature for prevention of excess winter mortality
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High in Britain b/c less thermally efficient houses
Excess heart attacks & strokes, greates in older and some inc in all ages. Most vulnerable elderly in old damp houses or those private rented/owner-occupied, fuel-poverty (spending more than 10% income on fuel). Psychosocial benefits to warmer house as well. Improve insulation and install/upgrade heat systems, fuel payment programs--all can decrease excess winter mortality |
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Explain difficulties in estimating burden of disease from indoor air pollution
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Epidemiology studies don't prove causality, only association. However, # studies with associations make argument linking indoor pollution with ill health. Burden of dz indoor pollution studied by combining exposures, risks, and background rates. Exposure was not directly measured 9unlike outdoor pollution in HIC) but where has been measured is much greater than outdoor. Any est of burden of dz of biomass fuel needs to add risks of physical burden in harvesting/collecting fuel.
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Health hazards of indoor pollution, esp women and kids:
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women charge of cooking, collection of biomass/solid fuels-->inc resp infections and more exposure to pollutants
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Hazards of housing
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asbestos, CO, cold, damp/mold, hygiene, food safety, heat, noise, lead, radon, sanitation/diarrhea, water/diarrhea/legionnaires, fire, falls;
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Name aspects of housing and health
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1. building design, materials, construction-related problems
2. hazards of housing 3. over-crowding 4. cold & excess winter mortality (idea min 18C living room 16C other rooms) 5. Damp housing (ideal 40-60% humidity and improved ventilation to dec mites anf fungal spores) |
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Risks overcrowding
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sanitation, poor diet, violence, psycho-social disorders, disease
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Principles of healthy housing
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1. Protection from communicable disease (sanitation, water, hygiene, food prep)
2. Protection from injury/poisoning/chronic dz: chemical safety, indoor air pollution, structure features/furnishings 3. Reduction psych and social stress: space, security, access recreation, noise 4. Access supportive living: security/ER services, health/social services, culture 5. Protect pop at special risk: women & kids, displaced/mobile pop, aged/ill/disabled |
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Sources of indoor pollution
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biomass burning (CO), outdoor air pollution, cleaning materials, cooking methods, building material exposure, mold, lead near high ways,
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How can we reduce air pollution from biomass fuels
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1. Change fuel type (processed and biogas <polluting but >$); now inc pollution from new sources
2. change stove time for inc efficiency 3. separate cooking from other activities 4. reduce exposure by improving ventilation 5. remove dust in room frequently |
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EL NINO
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warming of ocean off of western coast of South America occurs Q4-12 years
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FORCING AGENTS
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Any phenomenon that forces the climate to change, either natural (sunlight intensity) or man-made (pollution).
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GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS)
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An information system used to store, view, and analyse geographical information.
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GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS
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Gases partially or wholly produced by human activity--CO2, methane, nitrogen oxides, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
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REMOTE SENSING
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Measurement/acquisition of info from a distance. For exp. use of satellite images to study changes in waterways.
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List ways that industry has impact on environment and therefore health
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Negative: E use and resource depletion, water consumption (depletes resources available for domestic use), creation and disposal of solid and hazardous wastes, air/water pollution, occupational accidents
Positive: job creation, afford better services/housing/food for themselves and family; and enhanced communication w/ rural/marginalized communities |
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Positive and negative effects of transport on the environment
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Biking better for environment but inc accident (vs bus)
Promoting health effect of road transport: enables access to employment/education/shops/recreation/social support/health services/countryside; provides recreation and exercise Damaging health effects of road transport: accidents, pollution (CO, NOx, HC's, ozone, CO2, Pb, benzene), noise, vibration, stress/anxiety, loss land and planning blight, severance of communities by roads |
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Pot benefits of walking/cycling
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time saving (no parking/traffic jams), exercise, no addition to air pollution, reclaim urban space, fewer cars/motorcycles produced.
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Understand principles that should be used when considering sustainable E development
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Consumption and production must balance environmental impact, social factors, economics.
Inc renewable E sources and dec reliance on sources that need combustion to release stored E. Inc E production and use E more efficiently (ie insulation homes, E-efficient lighting/burning biomass >efficient in modified stoves, change fuels, electric cars, use E closer to home to dec transport pollution) Cheap electricity from wind/hydroelectric, H can store E in fuel cells (technical problems with safe transport) |
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HIC and E use
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2/3 use in HIC; renewable E has little impact currently on E consumption w/ exception biomass fuels
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Examples of renewable/nonrenewable E
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Renewable: biomass, hydroelectricity, goethermal, wind, solar, tides/waves
Non-renewable: solid fuels (ie coal), oil, natural gas, uranium-nuclear power *3 main sources: fossil fuels, nuclear, hydroelectricity Problems w/ dams: flooding, loss agricultural land, displaced pop, lost Cx/Hx sites, loss species, untx industrial/domestic wastewater no longer flushed downstream; economic/psych stress of moving; water dz malaria and schistomastis; pollution from building. Fossil fuels: natural gas cleanest>oil>coal Nuclear power: long-t1/2 materials (inhale, external exposure, ingest food/water-->ca, mutation, genetic effects. Lung ca uranium miners (& accidents, low-level over long T>detrimental than ST high dose. Exposure waste, miniing, process, power; station employees inc leukemia. Detonation/crash/accident/stres& relocation; Inc thyroid ca near accident (>kids), ? effect crops/animals Wood vs kerosene: resp prob/overharvest vs longer fuel cycle/poison/inc fire/security |
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Reason for inc E production since industrial revolution
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inc population (inc demand for E), inc E-intensive consumption, rapid industrialization, growth of mechanized transport
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Main types of waste
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domestic, muncipal (remove & recycle or dispose), clinical, industrial, commercial (store, hotel, restaurant, market, offices), agricultural, construction & demolition, mining & quarrying (most waste remain at/near site
domestic waste (g, l, s) linked to unsustainable consumption; discard/emit with no immed use to others. |
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Main possible methods of human exposure to hazardous waste
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Lg variety of waste has potential to be hazardous if not handled satisfactory if improperly treated, stored, transported, or disposed of.
1. Landfill: vapors, leachates, vectors for human disease, fire risk w/ tyres, unknown mix of chemicals, unknown exposure route (air/water/soil/agriculture), unknown dose; lack of exposure data and sm # involved when determining ca/congenital prob. Poss congenital and LBW assoc) 2. Incineration: combustion SO2, NOx, dioxins, PCBs; solid waste behind; destroys many toxins/pathogens medical waste and can be E/heat, ash for building/landfill bound; resident/workers inc dioxin, heavy metal, particulates Dioxin-ca, birth defects -Heavy metals- toxicity, ca, reproductive effects -Particulates: mortality, resp disease 3. Composting: micro-organisms release spores w/ allergic properties stim resp disease; ;methane and CO2. 4. Cows and methane |
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TREATMENT OF WASTE
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Any method, technique, proces designed to change the physical, chemical, or biological character/composition of a (hazardous) waste. Ideally will neutralize it, recover unexploied E, rende <hazardous or make it safer for transport, storage, or disposal. Priority reduce, re-use and recycle then E recovery and disposal.
Tax landfills and pkg regultions, consumer incentives, proximity principle for waste (dispose as near to place production as possible), greener products, industry reduce emissions in productionand remove Pb from electronics, products last longer and easier to repair/recycle. Waste minimization can improve efficiency and dec costs. |
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3 main factors hinder recycling
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1. cost to consumer at market price doesn't reflect costs to envir/health/cost of raw materials
2. >taxes or other financial incentives for extraction of raw materials than for recycling 3. lack of markets for recycled material |
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2 types of recycling
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Primary: make same type of product
Secondary/Open-loop: use for different material. Recycling still produces pollution but usually less. To work effectively recycling must provide consumer incentive, be easy, or involve payment for rubbish not recyclable. |
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Grey water
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waste water recycling for toilets/car washing
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Main barriers of solid waste in LIC
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availability of technology, space for landfill, dealing with inc volumes of waste as countries develop
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Opportunities for LIC to reduce waste using experiences from MIC/HIC
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Learn from mistakes, encourage community participation and composting at local level, better technology now available to enable small-scale efficient incineration, formalize practice of re-use and recycle that already works well informally, improved fee collection system in place
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Climate Change & Health Effects
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Inc in atmospheric conc of E-trapping gases leads to amplification of greenhouse effect. Inc temp, rise in sea, extreme weather, melt glacier/ice, heat waves, droughts, floods
Direct impact: temp-related illness/death, extreme weather events, effects of pollution spores/molds; effects on resp system; climate-related disasters Indirect impact: water and food-borne diseases, vector-borne (malaria) and contagious dz (cholera/influenza), disturb crop production from effects on soil/water/temp/pests-->food/water shortages. Seal level rise inundation, sewer disruption, soil salinity, loss biodiversity, evironmental refugees |
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Climate Change
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statistically significant variation in either mean state of climate or in its variability lasting extended periods of decade or longer. Natural internal processes (El Nino) or external force (human-induced composition change in atmosphere/land)
Modeling used to predict effects but can't acct for sharp rises; Causes: stratospheric ozone depletion, biodiversity, forests, water, desertification, air quality (link of climate change w/ envir issues and 2 way exchange) |
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Greenhouse effect
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Natural cycles warm/cool w/ fluctuation CO2 and methane then Industrial Revolution and sig rise in CO2, methane, NOx, CFCs
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Strategies for sea level rise
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retreat, accomodate (change land use or raise buildings), protect (Vegetation)
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Uncertainties assoc w/ modelling climate change
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unknown future greenhouse emissions
natural climate variability diff responses b/t diff global climate models poorly resolved regional and local climate changes possibility of abrupt, non-linear change in climate system |
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Kyoto Protocol
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Aims to reduce amount of carbon emissions and slow global warming.
Greenhouse emissions targeted by: goals to change technologies, E-efficient process, change E economy from carbon-based fuels to hydrogen, wind, and renewable; can achieve with carbon emissions bought/sold; HIC help LIC and MIC in cleaner sources like solar. *LIC/MIC have limited capacity to protect against adverse consequences of lobal warming (lack industry, transport, intensive agricultural practices) Action change requires equity and sustainability at different levels, international engagement with strong natl policies and action by individuals. |
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What are the main moral, political, and scientific problems assoc w/ human-induced climate change
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Moral: bequest to future generations ecologically damaged world; change mainly by rich countries and entire world will suffer (poor suffer most)
Political: poorer countries entitled to industrialize but can't afford $ tech needed to do it in envir protective manner; if whole world is to benefit from economic development, rich must aid poorer countries Scientific: uncertainty is inherent in data; not know precisely how great cutback in E use required to bring back stabilization/reversal |
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ACIDIC PRECIPITATION
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Acidic chemicals dissolved in rainwater and other precipitations
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STRATOSPHERIC OZONE DEPLETION
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Reduction of ozone in the stratosphere
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UV RADIATION
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Invisible electromagnetic radiation from sunlight.
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Direct and indirect effects of stratospheric ozone depletion on human health
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Direct: premature aging, skin cancer, eye damage, damge to immune system
Indirect: damage to terrestrial and aquatic system (crops ulnerable to UVB drop yield and impairs photosynthesis & growth hormones); phytoplankton and zooplankton close to surface decline and can decline fish stocks. Animal cancers on non-pigmented areas. *Ozone depletion from CFC's; normally screen to absorb UV radiation and prevent it from reaching earth. |
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Consequences of acidic precipitation
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sulphur oxides and nitrogen oxides from industrial sources (esp coal) caused
Main affect on aquatic but also plants and forests and cause simplification ecosystem -mobilization toxic chemicals into water -trees suffer lack of nutrients and die off then defoliation from culmination aluminum; inc CO2 -precursor production ground-level ozone (damage crops, treses, human-resp/eye irritant -climate change and eutrophication -damage crops by 1. direct damage, 2. acidification of soild -->dec fertility; 3) leach metals into crop. -possible direct effects on humans: bioaccumulation (Hg in fish), toxic metals in groundwater |
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How ecological system affected by loss of biodiversity
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Biodiversity leads to greater efficiency w/ diff species occupying >niches and extracting full benefits from E and nutrients available; more complicated system have greater adaptability in face of environmental changes b/c of niche occupant overlap and allows for substitutions.
Loss biodiversity means less stable, less adaptable system. Biological products imp to economy -Econosystems threatened by hunting, chemical poisoning, habitat loss, reduction in species that they changed/lost from urbanization/agriculture clearance, foeign species introduced, salinity, feral animals, unstatined grazing, tree clearing, changing fire regimens. |
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Examples of how changes in the ecosystem affect human health
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-Loss of biodiversity threaten nutrition & innovation, pharmaceuticals (1/2 Rx from natural organism extraction; bark-chloroquine, taxol-Pacific Yew)
-Biodiversity allows plant species to grow in unproductive/degraded land, breed wild strains w/ domestic stock means spread agriculture to new areas, higher yields and easier harvest -However, pot loss of some cultivars and opportunity for pest/disease outbreak to devastate whole areas; to ensure food security, need preserve genetic diversity; seed banks Geneetic modification: desire high yield and resistance to pest/drought and alleviate food shortages in LIC; unknown health, envir, economic risks (allergic rxn, pest resistance or herbicide tolerance can spread to wild plants and can be toxic to wildlife. |
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Problems with deforestation
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-Loss natural habitat and biodiversity
-Soil erosion and inc sediment in rivers w/ loss plants and animals and inc flooding -removal and storage of CO2 dec -loss fertile soil -inc runoff and alteration rivers and costs -poss climate changes |
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Climatological Factors
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Climates and their phenomena including temp, windspeed, cloud cover, hurricanes, adn floods.
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Tsunami
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Very lg ocean wave from underwater earthquake or volcanic eruption
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