English Language And Composition Ap - Terms

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ad hominem argument

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From the Latin meaning 'to or against the man," this is an argument that appeals to emotion rather than reason, to feeling rather than intellect.

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allegory

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The device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in addition to the literal meaning. In some allegories, for example, an author may intend the characters to personify an abstraction like hope of freedom. The allegorical meaning usually deals with moral truth or a generalization about human existence.

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alliteration

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The repetition of sounds, especially initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words (as in "she sells sea shells"). Although the term is not used in the multiple-choice section, you can look for alliteration in any essay passage. The repetition can reinforce meaning, unify ideas, and/or supply a musical sound.

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ambiguity

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The multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, of a word, phrase, sentence, or passage.

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analogy

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A similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between them. An analogy can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with, or pointing out its similarity to, something more familiar. Analogies can also make writing more vivid, imaginative, and intellectually engaging.

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antecedent

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The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun.

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antithesis

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A figure of speech involving a seeming contradiction of ideas, words, clauses, or sentences within a balanced grammatical structure. The resulting parallelism serves to emphasize opposition of ideas. "Too black for heaven, yet too white for hell" is an example of an antithesis.

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aphorism

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A terse statement of known authorship that expresses a general truth or moral principle. An aphorism can be a memorable summation of the author's point.

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apostrophe

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A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or personified abstraction, such as liberty or love. The effect may add familiarity or emotional intensity. William Wordsworth addresses John Milton as he writes, "Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour: England hath need of thee."

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caricature

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A representation, especially pictorial or literary, in which the subject's distinctive features or peculiarities are deliberately exaggerated to produce a comic or grotesque effect. Sometimes caricature can be so exaggerate that it becomes a grotesque imitation or misrepresentation.

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chiasmus

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A figure of speech based on inverted parallelism. It is a rhetorical figure in which two clauses are related to each other through a reversal of terms. The purpose is usually to make a larger point or to provide balance or order. "By day the frolic, and the dance by night" is an example of chiasmus.

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clause

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A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent, or main, clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent, or subordinate, clause cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be accompanied by an independent clause. In the sentence, "Because I practiced hard, my AP scores were high," the independent clause is "my AP scores were high," and the dependent clause is "Because I practiced hard."

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colloquialism

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Slang or informality in speech or writing. Not generally acceptable for formal writing, colloquialisms give work a conversational, familiar tone. Colloquial expressions in writing include local or regional dialects.

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conceit

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A fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended metaphor or surprising analogy between seemingly dissimilar objects. A conceit displays intellectual cleverness due to the unusual comparison being made.

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connotation

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The nonliteral, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested meaning. Connotations may involve ideas, emotions, or attitudes.

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denotation

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The strict, literal, dictionary definition of the word, devoid of any emotion, attitude or color.

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diction

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Related to style, diction refers to the writer's word choices, especially with regard to their correctness, clearness, or effectiveness. Diction contributes to an author's style.

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didactic

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From the Greek, "didactic" literally means "instructive." Didactic works have the primary aim of teaching or instructing, especially the teaching of moral or ethical principles.

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euphemism

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From the Greek for "good speech," euphemisms are a more agreeable or less offensive substitute for generally unpleasant words or concepts. The euphemism may be used to adhere to standards of social or political correctness, or to add humor or ironic understatement. Saying "earthly remains" rather than "corpse" is an example of a euphemism.

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extended metaphor

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A metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout the work.

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figurative language

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Writing or speech that is not intended to carry literal meaning and is usually meant to be imaginative and vivid.

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figure of speech

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A device used to produce figurative language. Many compare dissimilar things. Figures of speech include, for example, apostrophe, hyperbole, irony, metaphor, metonymy, oxymoron, paradox, personification, simile, and understatement.

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generic conventions

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This term describes traditions for each genre. These conventions help to define each genre; for example, they differentiate between an essay and journalistic writing or an autobiography and political writing.

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genre

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The major category into which a literary work fits. The basic division of literature are prose, poetry, and drama. However, "genre" is a flexible term; within these broad boundaries exist many subdivisions that are often called genres themselves.

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homily

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This term literally means "sermon," but more informally, it can include any serious talk, speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice.

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hyperbole

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A figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. Hyperboles often have a comic effect; however, a serious effect is also possible. Often, hyperbole produces irony at the same time.

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imagery

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The sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions. On a physical level, imagery uses terms related to the five senses. On a broader and deeper level, however, one image can represent more than one thing. For example, a rose may present visual imagery while also representing the color in a woman's cheeks, allowing an author to use it simultaneously with other figures of speech.

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inference/infer

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To draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented. When a multiple-choice question asks for an inference to be drawn from the passage, the most direct, most reasonable inference is the safest answer choice. Note that if the answer choice is directly stated, it is not inferred and is wrong.

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invective

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An emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language.

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irony/ironic

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The contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant; the difference between what appears to be and what actually is true. It is frequently used to create poignancy or humor.

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verbal irony

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Irony in which the words literally state the opposite of the writer's true meaning.

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situational irony

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Irony in which events turn out the opposite of what was expected. What the characters and readers think ought to happen does not actually happen.

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dramatic irony

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Irony in which facts or events are unknown to a character in a play or piece of fiction but known to the reader, audience, or other characters in the work.

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juxtaposition

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Placing dissimilar items, descriptions, or ideas close together or side by side, especially for comparison or contrast.

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loose sentence

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A type of sentence in which the main idea (independent clause) comes first, followed by dependent grammatical units such as phrases and clauses. A work containing many loose sentences often seems informal, relaxed, and conversational.

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metaphor

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A figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or the substitution of one for the other, suggesting some similarity. Metaphorical language makes writing more vivid, imaginative, thought provoking, and meaningful.

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metonymy

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A term from the Greek meaning "changed label" or "substitute name," metonymy is a figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it. A news release that claims "the White House declared" rather than "the President declared" is using metonymy.

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mood

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This term has two distinct technical meanings in English writing. The first meaning is grammatical and deals with verbal units and a speaker's attitude. The second meaning of mood is literary, meaning the prevailing atmosphere or emotional aura of a work. Setting, tone, and events can affect the mood.

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narrative

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The telling of a story or an account of an event or series of events.

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onomatopoeia

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A figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the sounds of words. Simple examples include such words as buzz, hiss, hum, crack, and murmur.

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paradox

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A statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense, but upon closer inspection contains some degree of truth or validity. "This sentence is a lie" is an example of a paradox.

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parallelism

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This term refers to the grammatical or rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural similarity. This can involve, but is not limited to, repetition of a grammatical element such as a preposition or verbal phrase.

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parody

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A work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of comic effect and/or ridicule. As comedy, parody distorts or exaggerates distinctive features of the original. As ridicule, it mimics the work by repeating and borrowing words, phrases, or characteristics in order to illuminate weaknesses in the original.

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pedantic

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An adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overal scholarly, academic, or bookish.

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periodic sentence

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A sentence that presents its central meaning in a main clause at the end. This independent clause is preceded by a phrase or clause that cannot stand alone.

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personification

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A figure of speech in which the author presents or describes concepts, animals, or inanimate objects by endowing them with human attributes or emotions.

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point of view

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In literature, the perspective from which a story is told. The general classifications are first person, third person omniscient, and third person limited omniscient.

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predicate adjective

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One type of subject complement - an adjective, group of adjectives, or adjective clause that follows a linking verb. It is in the predicate of the sentence, and modifies or describes the subject.

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predicate nominative

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A second type of subject complement - a noun, group of nouns, or noun clause that renames the subject. It, like the predicate adjective, follows a linking verb and is located in the predicate of the sentence.

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prose

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One of the major divisions of genre, "prose" refers to fiction and nonfiction, including all its forms, because they are written in ordinary language and most closely resemble everyday speech. Technically, anything that isn't poetry or drama is prose.

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repetition

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The duplication, either exact or approximate, of any element of language, such as a sound, word, phrase, clause, sentence, or grammatical pattern.

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rhetoric

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From the Greek for "orator," this term describes the principles governing the art of writing effectively, eloquently, and persuasively.

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rhetorical appeal

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The persuasive device by which a writer tries to sway the audience's attention and response to any given work. Logos employs logical reasoning, ethos establishes credibility, and pathos plays on the reader's emotions and interests.

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rhetorical modes

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This flexible term describes the variety, the conventions, and the purposes of the major kinds of writing. Exposition explains or analyzes, argumentation proves the validity of an idea, description visually presents a subject, and narration tells a story.

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rhetorical question

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A question that is asked merely for effect and does not expect a reply. The answer is assumed.

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sarcasm

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From the Greek meaning "To tear flesh," sarcasm involves bitter, caustic language that is meant to hurt or ridicule someone or something. It may use irony as a device, but not all ironic statements sarcastic.

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satire

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A work that targets human vices and follies, or social institutions and conventions, for reform or ridicule. Regardless of whether or not the work aims to reform humans or their society, satire is best seen as a style of writing rather than a purpose for writing.

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simile

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An explicit comparison, normally using "like," "as," or "if."

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style

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An evaluation of the sum of the choices an author makes in blending diction, syntax, figurative language, and other literary devices.

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subject complacent

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The word (with any accompanying phrases) or clause that follows a linking verb and completes the subject of the sentence by either renaming it or describing it (a predicate nominative or a predicate adjective).

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subordinate clause

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Like all clauses, this word group contains both a subject and a verb, but unlike the independent clause, the subordinate clause cannot stand alone; it does not express a complete thought. It depends on the main clause to complete its meaning.

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syllogism

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From the Greek for "reckoning together," a syllogism is a deductive system of formal logic that presents two premises - the first one called "major" and the second "minor" - that inevitably lead to a sound conclusion.

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symbol/symbolism

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Generally, anything that represents or stands for something else. Usually, a symbol is something concrete - such as an object, action, character, or scene - that represents something more abstract.

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syntax

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The way an author chooses to join words intro phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is similar to diction, but you can differentiate the two by thinking of syntax as referring to groups of words, while diction refers to individual words.

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theme

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The central idea or message of a work, the insight it offers into life; a universal truth about the human condition. Usually, theme is unstated in fictional works, but in nonfiction, the theme may be directly stated, especially in expository or argumentative writing.

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thesis

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The sentence or group of sentences that directly expresses the author's opinion, purpose, meaning, or proposition.

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tone

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Describes the the author's attitude toward his or her material, the audience, or both. It is easier to determine in spoken language than in written language and can rarely be described with one word.

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transition

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A word or phrase that links different ideas. Used especially, although not exclusively, in expository and argumentative writing, they effectively signal a shift from one idea to another.

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understatement

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The ironic minimizing of fact, understatement presents something as less significant that it is. The effect can frequently be humorous and emphatic. Understatement is the opposite of hyperbole.

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litotes

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A figure of speech by which an affirmation is made indirectly by denying the opposite. It uses understatement for emphasis, frequently with negative assertion.

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meiosis

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The Greek term for understatement or belittling; a rhetorical figure by which something is referred to in terms less important that it really deserves. It describes something that is very impressive with simplicity.

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wit

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In modern usage, wit is intellectually amusing language that surprises and delights. A witty statement is humorous, while suggesting the speaker's verbal power in creating ingenious and perceptive remarks. Wit usually uses terse language that makes a pointed statement.