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113 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What were the characteristics of Latin loan words in OE? |
-The most important source
-Germanic tribes in contact with Latin speakers -Popular and oral (rather than learned and written) -Three periods: Germanic period, Celtic period, Christian period (with Christianization of Anglo-Saxons, which were learned borrowings concerning religion and scholarship) |
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Hybrid
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A complex word form which consists of a native part and a borrowed part
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Loan translation
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How Anglo-Saxons adapted their own language by translating Latin into English |
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Calques |
Translated words using loan translation |
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What were the characteristics of Celtic loan words in OE? |
-Minor source of OE loan words -Anglo-Saxons conquered the Celts or forced them into exile |
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What were the characteristics of Old Norse loan words in OE? |
-Scandinavians and English lived in close contact -Approx. 1,000 words -/sk/ rather than /s-hat/ -/g/ rather than /j/ -/k/ rather than /ch/ -/g/ following a back vowel rather than OE /curvy-y/ -Because does NOT show palatalization -OE borrowed Old Norse third-person plural pronouns |
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Doublets |
Words which derive from the same original word but which arrive in a language via different routes of transmission |
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Semantic loan |
A word retained but acquires a meaning of a different language's cognate |
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Compounding |
-Creating a new word by combining two or more free roots into one word. -Makes up a large percentage of word stock in OE |
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Kenning |
Use of metaphor in forming a special type of compound |
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Derivation |
-Creation of new words by adding prefixes or suffixes to existing roots. -Very common in OE |
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Prefixes can change... |
Only the meaning of the root to which they are attached |
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Suffixes can change... |
Either the meaning of the root or its part of speech. |
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What were the characteristics of the Orthographic system of OE? |
-Christianization important influence -Latin alphabet from Irish missionaries, written in Insular script. Added eth and yogh symbols. -Anglo-Saxons added thorn and wynn symbols |
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Phonemic writing system |
-Used in OE -Each alphabetic symbol stands for a single distinct sound |
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Palatalization |
Front vowel causes a sound to move either forward or backward to become more palatal in articulation. |
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What are the OE Germanic voiceless stops? |
-p= /p/ -t= /t/ -c= /k/, /c-hat/ -cw= /kw/ |
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What are the OE Germanic voiced stops? |
-b= /b/ -d= /d/ -yogh= /g/, /j/, /y/ |
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What are the OE Germanic fricatives? |
-s= /s/, /z/ -f= /f/, /v/ -eth or thorn= /theta/ or /eth/ -h= /h/, /x/ |
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What are the OE Germanic nasals and approximates? |
-n= /n/, /n with tail/ -m= /m/ -l= /l/ -r= /r/ -yogh= /j/ -wynn= /w/ |
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What are the characteristics of the OE vowel system? |
-Both long and short vowels -p.182 for vowel chart -Short vowels lax -Long vowels tense and long |
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Umlaut |
Sound change in which vowel either moves directly forward in the mouth or forward and up. |
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Breaking |
The process by which certain vowels became diphthongized as they entered OE. (Short ae, short e, long and short i) |
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What was the Old English stress system? |
The stress falls on the first syllable or on the root syllable. |
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Inflections |
-OE is a synthetic language -Affixes indicate primary grammatical meaning |
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Declensions/declined |
When a noun, pronoun, adjective, or demonstrative is inflected |
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Conjugations/conjugated |
When a verb is inflected |
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Paradigm |
All of a word's inflected variants together |
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Grammatical gender |
-System used by OE -Grammatical gender may have nothing to do with the real-world sex of the object, instead it functions as a means of classifying nouns |
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What are the OE cases? |
-Nominative= subject -Genitive= possessor -Dative= indirect object -Accusative= direct object -Instrument= means by which something is done |
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What are all the things nouns are inflected by? |
-Person -Number -Case -Gender |
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OE pronouns |
OE inflections best preserved in personal and interrogative pronouns of ModE |
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Aliteration |
Repetition of the first letter/sound of words |
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1204 |
-King John lost Normandy -Royal connection between Normandy, France, andEngland is lost -Important for revival of English as the primary languagein England |
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West Saxon |
-Dialect of Old English that became the standard -Winchester, King Alfred used to bring England together |
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William Caxton |
-Brought the first printing press to England -15th Century |
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Caedmon's Hymn |
-Old English -Alliterative hymn about a herdsman, said he couldn’t sing then has a dream, and is told to sing about creation |
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Articles |
-Such as "the", "an", "a" -Marks movement towards analytic language -Middle English uses, Old English doesn't |
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Beowulf |
Old English alliterative poem, oldest surviving poem written in Old English |
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Inflections of Old English are best preserved in what Modern English parts of speech? |
Personal and interrogative pronouns |
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In OE, what can inflected nouns distinguish? |
-Singular and plural -Five cases -3 genders (masculine, feminine, neuter |
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A-stem nouns |
60% of all OE nouns follow this inflectional pattern |
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Where does ModE -s plural ending come from?
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Masculine nominative and accusative plural ending in OE, weakened and eventual syncope (-as>-es>-s) |
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What is the pattern for masculine singular a-stem nouns? |
-Nom: 0 -Acc: 0 -Gen: es -Dat/instr: e |
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What is the pattern for masculine plural a-stem nouns? |
-Nom: as -Acc: as -Gen: a -Dat/Instr: um |
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Where does our ModE 's possessive ending come from? |
OE genitive singular ending, syncope (-es>-'s) |
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Demonstratives in OE |
-One pointing to a referent close to the speaker (this/these) -One pointing to a referent further away (that/those) -Indicates gender of noun that it's paired with -ModE demonstratives derived from OE ones with analogical changes |
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Where did the ModE "the" come from? |
OE "se" (later "(thorn)e") |
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What are the origins of ModE "ly" adverbs? |
-The OE instrumental ending -e (indicating means) was added to adjectives to make them adverbs -Overtime the "e" ending was lost -Also common, was combing "lic" (which forms adjectives) with "-e", which is the source of ModE "-ly" adverb ending. |
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What are the origins of comparative and superlative endings in ModE? |
-OE comparative ending: "-ra", became "-er" -OE superlative ending: "-ost" became "-est" |
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Dual |
A number case inflected in OE, but lost in ME (indicating two as the number) |
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Agreement |
-A process in which the grammatical information expressed in one form must be repeated in other forms with accompany it -Widespread in Old English, but limited in ModE |
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Weak verbs in OE |
-75% are weak, majority of verbs -Past tense formed with dental preterit suffix between the root of the verb and the personal ending. - "-ed" for weak class 1 or "-od" fro class II |
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Strong verbs in OE |
-Form past tenses by process of vowel gradation (ablaut) -Does not have "d" unless "d" in the infinitive -Preterit tense indicated by vowel alternation (ablaut) |
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What are the origins of the "be" forms? |
-Modern present tense "be" verbs developed from "beon" -Past tense developed from a different verb "wesan" |
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Periphrasis |
Grammatical function expressed by separate words or phrases (function words) rather than by word endings (inflections) |
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Syntax in OE |
-Word order was not fixed, but main clauses followed SOV or SVO -Inflectional endings indicated grammar (synthetic) |
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Norman Conquest |
-Conquest of England by the Duke of Normand -1066 -One of single most important even affecting the linguistic development of English |
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Duke William of Normandy |
-William "the Conquerer" -Took over England with Norman Conquest |
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Harold, son of Godwine |
-Last Anglo-Saxon king -Contested the Norman throne |
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i-umlaut |
-The i-sound caused mutation of the root vowel -Ending eventually drops off, leaving different vowels for singular and pleura -Ex. foot and feet |
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In OE, adjectives had to have agreement in... |
Number and gender with the noun s they modified |
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Where did the "th" form in pronouns come from? |
Old Norse |
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449 |
First period of Latin borrowing took place when Germanic tribes came in contact with Latin speakers |
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Alfred the Great |
-Known for revival of learning -King of Wessex -Early West Saxon became the standard for Old English under him -Rise of vernacular English |
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Scandinavian invasions |
Vikings invaded England, assimilation resulted in many loan words |
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Battle of Hastings |
-1066 -William the Conquerer beat Harold of England |
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Bayeux Tapestry |
Tapestry depicting the Battle of Hastings, made in Kent |
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What was the language landscape in England during and post-Norman conquest? |
-Latin was still official written language -French was prestige language, people in power -English was lower-class language, only a spoken language for 200 years (social stigma) |
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Diglossia |
A linguistic situation in which two languages coexist, but one is lower or socially stigmatized and the other is a prestige dialect (case of English and French during Middle Ages) |
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Hundred Years War |
-Mid 14th-Century -Between England and France -Contributes to a sense of English nationalism, rise of English as prestige language and written language |
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Black Death |
-Increased English prestige -Working class more in demand -Nobility wiped out also |
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Peasant's Revolt |
-Peasants starting demanding more rights after the Black Plague -More English-speaking people in power -Merchant class speaking English (more trade) |
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Oxford Proclamation |
First official document written in English since the Norman Conquest |
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What was the period of the greatest bilingualism in England? |
Between 1250-1400 |
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What was the French influence on Middle English? |
-Lots of loan words, become not just cultural borrowing -Two dialects borrowed from: Norman French and Central French |
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What were the differences between Norman and Central French borrowings in Middle English? |
-Latin /k/ before /a/ stays /k/ in Norman borrowings -Becomes /c-hat/ in Central borrowings |
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What were the differences between earlier and later French borrowings in Middle English? |
-Earlier borrowings: /c-hat/, stress pattern English (root syllable) -Later borrowings: /s-hat/, stress pattern French (second syllable) |
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Reeve's Tail |
-By Chaucer -Midlands dialect -14th Century |
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Printing press |
-Brought to England by William Caxton in the 15th Century -Established at Westminster -Lead to widespread English literature and stabilization of English as a written language |
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What were the 5 Middle English dialects? |
-West Midland -East Midland -Kentish -Southerwestern -West Saxon |
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What were the features of the Northern dialect of ME? |
-Most innovative -/k/ instead of /c-hat/ |
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Vowel length in OE |
Vowel lengths are marked, all vowels have a long and short pronunciation |
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What were the features of the Southern dialect of ME? |
-Most conservative |
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What were the features of the Midlands dialect of ME? |
-Hybrid between conservative and progressive -Eventually became the standard dialect of ME |
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What were some phonological changes from OE to ME? |
-Reduction of consonant clusters (hl, hn> l, n) -W between consonants lost (swa>so) -Initial /theta/ becomes voiced /eth/ (this, the) -/v/, /z/ and /eth/ pronounced in final position -OE long ae becomes ME /e/, short ae merges with short a -OE diphthongs disappear and new ones develop |
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What were some spelling/orthography changes from OE to ME? |
-Eth and thorn replaced by "th" -Wynn replaced by "w" -Yogh replaced by "g" when it represented a stop and "w" in other words -V is used as separate from f -U/v used interchangeably -"Ch" and "sh" spellings used -"Hw" became "wh" -"Qu" spelling from French -Double vowels used to indicate vowel length |
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Vowel reduction |
-Centralization and laying of the short vowels a, o, u and e to schwa in many syllables other than those with primary stress -One of the most important changes from OE to ME -Qualitative change (change in place of articulation -Caused leveling of inflections |
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Vowel merger |
-When two distinct vowels merge to be represented by a single vowel -Ex. ME: short a, ae, and ea merged to /a/ |
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What are some examples of how OE inflections were reduced in ME? |
-Loss of final inflectional -n -Leveling of vowels (reduction) -Loss of grammatical gender |
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What affect on ME syntax did the loss of inflections have? |
-Periphrasis -Prepositions and word order increasingly important -Analytic language -SVO |
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What were the left-over inflectional forms in Middle English (nouns and present tense verbs) |
-Nouns: plurals (-as>-es), possessives (-es>-s) -Verbs: varied by dialect (-es or -eth) |
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What were the plural endings that developed by analogy in ME? |
-"-en" ending to mark plura -"-as" -OE masculine a-stem nominative pl. now used in all plural cases |
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What were the characteristics of ME pronouns? |
-Loss of the dual number -3 cases (genitive, objective, nominative) -Beginning with "h", plural uses "th" (from Old Norse) |
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What were the present tense personal verb endings in the ME dialects? |
-North: 0, -es, -es, -es -Midlands= -e, -est, -eth, -en -South= -e, -est, -eth, -eth |
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How did past tense endings change on strong/weak verbs from Old to Middle English?
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Weak -ed ending came to be used for many originally strong verbs (analogy) |
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Emma of Normandy |
-Daughter of the Duke of Normandy -Active in politics, powerful -Mother of Edward the Confessor, Alfred the Great |
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How did adjectives change from OE to ME? |
Dramatically, only the superlative and comparative endings remain (-re>er and -ost?est) |
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How did personal pronouns change from OE to ME? |
-3 cases (nominative, objective, and genitive) remained -OE possessives with "-n" ending became -n-less (min>my) |
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How did demonstrative pronouns change from OE to ME? |
-OE "that"> ME "the" -Singular/plural distinctions but not gender |
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How did interrogative pronouns change from OE to ME? |
"Hw" became "wh" |
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Morte Arthure |
-Middle English alliterative poem -The story of King Arthur -15th Century |
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The Ruin |
-Old English elegy -Author unknown |
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The Wanderer |
-Old English poem -Anglo-Saxon alliterative prose |
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Allophone |
Variants of a certain sound, but indicated by same IPA symbol |
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Analogy |
Speaker alters a form with another form in order to eliminate irregularities in the language. Ex. "teached" instead of "taught" |
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Anglo-Norman |
The mixing of Norman (French) and Anglo-Saxon (English) peoples |
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Cognates |
2 words that sound similar and share a root, go back to a common source (ex. pater/father) |
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Digraph |
Two characters to represent a sound (ex. "sh", "ch") |
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Geoffrey Chaucer |
Famous ME poet (wrote in the Midlands dialect) |
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Paul Kingsnorth |
Wrote "The Wake" in a mock OE language |
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How did ME become standardized? |
-Caxton bringing the printing press, allowed official and unofficial documents to be written in English -Hundred Year's War, influx of English nationalism -Protestant Reformation= Bible in the common language, principle of individualism -East Midlands dialect became the standard, prevailing dialect in London (most populous and wealthiest region) |
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Runic writing |
The Germanic alphabet |
