Endocrine System

Front 1

1.Exocrine secretes towards

Ex:

Back 1

Secretes toward outside. Has a DUCT and hollow space.
Ex: Sweat glands

Front 2

Endocrine secretes:

Back 2

Secretes into bloodstream. NO Duct.
No hollow space.

Front 3

PROCESS OF SECRETION
Merocrine:
Cytoplasm
Apical portion

Back 3

Most common type of secretion
Exocytosis
No loss of cytoplasm
Apical portion of cell pinches off

Front 4

PROCESS OF SECRETION
Apocrine:
Secretion by
Cytoplasm
Ex:

Back 4

Sloughing off apical portion.
Loss of some cytoplasm
mucus secreting cells

Front 5

PROCESS OF SECRETION
Holocrine (Think Whole)
Secretion by
Loss of
Ex

Back 5

slough off ENTIRE cell basically killing it.
Sebaceous glands (acne) bc all the material that gets taken up clogs pores

Front 6

MEROCRINE AKA
No blood vessel hint:
Lipid bilayer of vesicle fuses with bilayer of membrane

If Apocrine

Back 6

Exocytosis
Its exocrine
a polar charge will come out and the secretory material is released while the membrane is taken back up. Basically just exocytosis

Secretory vesicles will fill at apical part and then the whole top of the cell gets taken off so some cytoplasm is also taken.

Front 7

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
2 major parts of endocrine function

Back 7

Signal-Released into interstitial space or blood
Receptor-protein molecules in cell membrane or in cell

Front 8

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Many similarities here w/ nervous system bc we are using a chemical signal with receptors on postsynaptic membrane. The difference is with..

Think Cell phones

Back 8

Size. With synapses, neurotransmitters only have to travel a small distance. With endocrine, the released signal has to travel blood stream to find their receptors in the body, called target cells. Cells that aren’t target cells wont respond.

Sometimes cells have receptors but they wont be expressing them at a particular moment. Its like a cell phone, you can call it but unless its turned on, it wont ring.

Front 9

ENDOCRINE REGULATION
Autocrine

Back 9

Self secretion, self regulation.
Cell masturbation.

Front 10

ENDOCRINE REGULATION
Paracrine

Back 10

stimulates neighbor cell in CONNECTIVE TISSUE not blood.

Front 11

ENDOCRINE REGULATION
Endocrine

Back 11

Secretes into a capillary carries into bloodstream to site far away

Front 12

TYPES OF HORMONES
Structure/Solubility
1.Lipid
2.Peptide
3.Amine

Back 12

1.Lipid soluble
2. Water soluble
3. Either lipid or water soluble

Front 13

2 classes of lipid hormones:
1. S
2. E

Back 13

1. Steroids (testosterone, estrogen) lipid soluble
2. Eicosanoids

Front 14

Eicosanoids broken into 2 subgroups
1. P
2. L

Back 14

1. Prostaglandins
2. Leukotrienes

Front 15

4 classes of steroids
1. E
2. P
3. A
4. C

Back 15

1. estrogens
2. progestagens
3. androgens
4. corticosteroids

Front 16

Estrogens

Back 16

several estrogen molecules – estradiol is the single most important and common one. Estrogen is basically referring to estradiol.

Front 17

Progestagens

Back 17

progesterone is the real big important one. Is the other feminizing hormone.

Front 18

Androgens

Back 18

masculinizing hormone, the ones you hear about in sports and the news. Notice the slight change between the two hormones, think about how specific a receptor has to be. These 3 are all sex steroids, regulates reproduction.

Front 19

Corticosteroids

Back 19

Nothing do to with reproduction, comes from adrenal cortex. Regulates other functions in the body.

Front 20

Steroid Biosynthesis:
Start off with
2 Cortical Steroids

Back 20

Cholesterol.
Cortisol and Aldosterone are cort steroids

Front 21

Steroid Biosynthesis Chart
Cholesterol>

Back 21

Cholesterol>pregnenolone>Progesterone>Cortisol
Progesterone> Androstenedione>Testosterone
Testosterone>Aromatase>Estradiol
Testosterone>5A reductase>5A dihydrotestosterone

Front 22

Which step in steroid biosynthesis is rate limiting? Where does it occur?

Rest occurs in

Back 22

Cholesterol > Pregnenolone
Occurs in inner mitochondrial membrane

Smooth ER

Front 23

Eicosanoids
Leukotrienes deal with...
Increases 3 things
VP
V
SMC

Back 23

Allergy and Inflammation
Increase Vascular permeability
Vasodilation
Smooth muscle contraction
Youre allergic to something, body releases Leukotrienes making all those things bigger like capillaries which increases leakiness causing runny nose and eyes. Reduce leukotrienes, you will reduce those effects and feel better.

Front 24

Eicosanoids
Prostaglandins deal with...
Have to do with..

Back 24

Pain, fever
Reproductive functions
Labor

Front 25

Eicosanoid Synthesis Chart
Glycerophospholipids >

Back 25

Glycerophospholipids>Phospholipase A2>Arachadonic Acid
Arachadonic Acid>5 Lipoxygenase>Leukotrienes
Arachadonic Acid>Cyclooxygenase>Prostaglandins

Front 26

Peptide Based Hormones
1Single Peptides (2) O,P
2Polypeptides (2) I, G
3Glycoproteins (4) T, F, L, C

Back 26

1. oxytocin, prolactin
2. insulin, growth hormone
3. TSH, FSH, LH, CG

Front 27

Cytokines dont go

Examples of Cytokines (4)

Back 27

Dont go into bloodstream, they stay in connective tissue

1. All growth factors
2. Relaxin
3. Mullerian
4. Inhibin

Front 28

Synthesis of Amine Hormones
Phenylalanine>

Back 28

Phenylalanine>Tyrosine>Dopamine>Norepinephrine>Epinephrine

Front 29

1.Hormone Receptors
2.Ligand

Back 29

1. mediate the chemical signal at the target cell
2.a compound, such as a hormone, that binds to a receptor

Front 30

Receptors have 2 different sites

Back 30

1. Binding site
holds receptor and ligand together
Aligns molecules
2. Active site
may activate receptor

Front 31

Hormone Action
1.Intracellular only interact with..
2.Plasma membrane bound receptors

Back 31

1. lipid soluble hormones
2.Interact mostly with water soluble hormones

Front 32

With Lipid Soluble hormones like steroids

Back 32

they go inside, interact and go right to DNA and turn on or off genes and making new functions

Front 33

Lipid Insoluble use

Back 33

Signal transduction pathways
Start off with the first messenger, which is just the hormone. However it cannot get into the cell so its receptor must be part of the cell membrane. The receptor cant go into the cell either so you have to have a second or third messenger. Messengers are chemical signals that can move around. So the receptor causes the creation of a messenger that can move around inside the cell and make an effect. Sometimes we will have an enzyme cascade which is a series of enzymes and reactions, one after another. Not all cells will use this. Eventually it gets to the effectors step.

Front 34

Effectors Alter 2 things

Back 34

1. Enzyme activity
2. opens ion channels

Front 35

cAMP Pathway

Back 35

Out of cell is above membrane. We have a stimulatory hormone that binds to its receptor. The receptor is interacting with a G-protein and is Gs because it is stimulatory. Called G-protein bc it interacts with GTP and will take a high-energy phosphate off. When Gprotein is activated, it activates adenylate cyclase which is an enzyme that can take ATP and convert it into cAMP. cAMP now becomes our second messenger and acts to go signal the cell.

Front 36

1cAMP is a second messenger activated by
2.Inhbiting adenylate cyclase would

Back 36

1.adenylate cyclase converting ATP to it.
2.stop cAMP production

Front 37

1.cAMP interacts with an effector molecule which is usually
2.When cAMP interacts with regulatory subunit
3.Phosphoprotein phosphatase

Back 37

1.protein kinase A.
2.they detach and now the catalytic subunit can interact in the cell
3. stops the reaction and wont activate PKA. To avoid this, increase cAMP production

Front 38

Hormone induced responses mediated by cAMP pathway
Stimulatory-Epinephrine uses
Inhibitory

Back 38

Stimulatory-Epinephrine uses B-adrenoreceptors to breakdown glycogen in muscle
Inhibitory-Epinephrine uses A2-adrenoreceptors to stimulate aggregation (joining of particles to form a mass) and secretion in RBCs
Epinephrine uses A2 also to decrease lipid breakdown in fat cells.

Front 39

DAG
Instead of g-protein interacting with Adenylase Cyclase, it interacts with

Back 39

Phospholipase C

Front 40

IP3 interacts with

Back 40

IP3 – gets complicated – it interacts with Ca stores (in ER) allows calcium to come into the cell. Calcium interacts with enzyme in the membrane Guanylate Cyclase which takes GTP and makes cGMP that will then go to protein kinase G.
Calcium could have also worked with troponin (muscles) or calmodulin which when with calcium, they can regulate many things in the cell.
We get third messengers bc DAG and IP3 are second messengers and then allowing Calcium in creates our third messenger.

Front 41

1.Lipid soluble (steroid, thyroid) last Hours/Days bc they have
2. Lipid insoluble (Peptides, Catecholamines) last seconds/minutes bc

Back 41

1. Carrier proteins
2. they are degraded by cells outside

Front 42

5 Factors affect hormone activity

Back 42

Binding proteins in blood
Hormone Turnover
Alteration of hormones at target tissue
Receptor levels
Circadian rhythms and pulsatile release

Front 43

cAMP is degraded by
PKA is deactivated by

Back 43

1Phosphodiesterase (PDE)
2Phosphoprotein phospatase

Front 44

1. Anterior pituitary AKA
2. Posterior

Back 44

1. Adenohyphophysis
2. Neurohypophysis

Front 45

Neuorhypophysis

Back 45

Doesn't actually do anything, just where everything releases

Front 46

2 Hormones of Neurohypophysis

Back 46

ADH – name of hormone will help tell you what it does. So this hormone helps you save water by causing urination less, Increasing blood pressure.
Oxytocin – works on smooth muscle of reproductive organs. During child birth, Oxytocin is hormone to cause uterus to contract. Uterus only responds when it is close to time for delivery. It also works in the mammary glands causes smooth muscle to contract and squeeze out milk.

Front 47

Acidophils and Basophils are located in the

Back 47

Pars Distalis of the Anterior pituitary

Front 48

2 Acidophils

Back 48

Growth Hormone GH
Prolactin PRL

Front 49

Basophils secrete 4 tropic hormones

Back 49

TSH
ACTH
*2 Gonadotropins
FSH
LH

Front 50

4 functions of GH

Back 50

enhances amino acid uptake and protein synthesis
- mobilize lipids giving you energy
- influences growth by inducing somatomedins (SM) from liver in mammals which makes growth in long bones
- stimulate growth of cartilage in epiphyseal plates

Front 51

3 functions of prolactin

Back 51

1. Growth

2. Water/electrolyte balance

3. Reproduction
- Milk synthesis in mammals

Front 52

2 functions of TSH

Back 52

- stimulates synthesis and release of thyroid hormones
T4 (thyroxine) & T3 (triiodothyronine)
- hormones form a negative feedback loop on TSH

Front 53

1ACTH AKA
2. Function

Back 53

Corticotropin
2.stimulates secretion of hormones by the adrenal cortex

Front 54

1. Follicle stimulating hormone - FSH
2. Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

Back 54

1Induces gametogenesis in both males (sertoli cells) and females (follicular cells)
2.Stimulates gonadal steroidogenesis in both males (Leydig cells) and females (follicular cells)

Front 55

Prolactin makes the milk but _____ is needed to release it.

Back 55

oxytocin

Front 56

1
GH and Prolactin act directly on
2.Tropic Hormones (ACTH, TSH, FSH, LH) stimulate

Back 56

1nonendocrine somatic tissues
2secretory activity of somatic endocrine tissues

Front 57

ACTH
1. Structure
2. Target Tissue
3. Primary action in mammals
4. Regulation

Back 57

1. Peptide
2. Adrenal Cortex
3. Increases synthesis/secretion of steroid hormones by adrenal cortex
4. Cortical releasing hormone CRH stimulates release; ACTH slows release of CRH

Front 58

FSH
1. Structure
2. Target Tissue
3. Primary action in mammals
4. Regulation

Back 58

1. Glycoprotein
2. Ovarian follicles (female)
seminiferous tubules (male)
3. Female-stimulates maturation of ovarian follicles
Male-increases sperm production
4. GnRH stimulates release; inhibin and steroid sex hormones inhibit release

Front 59

LH
1. Structure
2. Target Tissue
3. Primary action in mammals
4. Regulation

Back 59

1. glycoprotein
2. Ovarian interstitial (fem) testicular interstit (male)
3. Female-induces final maturation of ovarian follicles, estrogen secretion, ovulation, corpus luteum formation, rogesterone secretion.
Male-increases synthesis/secretion of androgens
4. GnRH stimulates release, inhibin and steroid sex hormones inhibit release

Front 60

TSH
1. Structure
2. Target Tissue
3. Primary action in mammals
4. Regulation

Back 60

1. glycoprotein
2. thyroid gland
3. increases syntheis/secretion of thyroid hormones
4. TRH induces secretion; thyroid hormones and somatostatin slow release

Front 61

Control of Adenohypophysis Basophils

Back 61

TRH = TSH releasing hormone
CRH = Corticotropin releasing hormone
GnRH = Gonadotropin releasing hormone

Front 62

Control of of Adenohypophysis Acidophils

Back 62

GHRH = Growth hormone releasing hormone
GHIH = Growth hormone inhibiting hormone
PRLRH = Prolactin releasing hormone
PRLIH = Prolactin inhibiting hormone

Front 63

Basophils are laid back.

Back 63

They don’t make hormone unless something makes them (hypothalamus). We have releasing hormone that causes basophil to release a specific hormone. Only a single releasing hormone in gonadotropins – follicle stimulating and leutenizing.

Front 64

Acidophils are always making hormones

RHs and IHs are made in brain and are sent to acidophils and basophils to

Back 64

so to regulate them you not only need something to stimulate them more, but also a way to slow them down – inhibitory hormones (opposite of releasing hormone).

regulate their production

Front 65

Thyroid Functions
Metabolism
Nervous system
Gut
Maturational effects

Back 65

1ncreased metabolic rate in mammals
2.Reflex time
Motor response
Mental acuity
3.Food movement
4.Enhanced developmental growth rate
Stimulates metamorphosis

Front 66

Formation of Thyroid hormones
1.Only endocrine gland who’s secretory product is stored
2.Uses colloid to

Back 66

extracellularly
2. store hormone until it is needed

Front 67

Release of Thyroid hormones into Circulatory system
1. under stimulation of TSH, thyroid principal cells take up colloid by
2. lysosomes in the cytoplasm fuse with the pinocytotic vesicles and remove

Back 67

1. pinocytosis
2.T4 (thyroxin) or T3 (triiodothyronine) from the thyroglobulin, which are liberated into the cytoplasm

Front 68

1.Parafollicular or C-cells located
2.2 Functions

Back 68

1.Thyroid follicles
2.Secrete Calcitonin
In response to elevated blood Ca2+
Acts directly on osteoclasts and inhibits them
Reduces renal reabsorption of Ca2+
> reduce Ca2+ concentration in blood

Front 69

CALCIUM LEVELS TOO HIGH RELEASE

Back 69

Calcitonin from C cells
Calcium Too High: Release Calcitonin.
Calcitonin inhibits Osteoclasts
This causes Calcium in blood to go down.
Calcitonin reduces ability of kidneys to reabsorb Calcium which means you urinate it away

Front 70

Parathyroid Glands function

Back 70

Secretion of Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
In response to decrease in blood Ca2+ conc.
Indirectly stimulates osteoclasts
> Increases blood Ca2+ conc.

Front 71

CALCIUM LEVELS TOO LOW RELEASE

Back 71

PTH from parathyroid glands
If Calcium is Too Low: Release PTH
PTH stimulates osteoclasts which chew bone to release Calcium into blood

Front 72

Islets of Langerhans

Back 72

Cluster of several hundred endocrine cells

Front 73

Pancreatic Islets of Langerhans
Beta Cells
Insulin

Back 73

Causes storage of excess nutrients as glycogen, lipids and proteins
Increase transport of glucose and amino acids into cells
Induce glycogen synthesis in muscle (convert glucose to glycogen)
Suppress glycogenolysis in liver (conversion of glycogen to glucose)
Increase absorption of glucose from kidney filtrate
Overall consequence of insulin release
Decrease blood glucose
Decrease blood fatty acids
Decrease blood amino acids
Increase protein synthesis
Increase fuel storage

Front 74

Pancreatic Islets of Langerhans
Alpha Cells

Back 74

Secrete Glucagon
Antagonize insulin by increasing blood glucose
stimulating hepatic glycogenolysis (breakdown of glycogen to glucose)
Other functions
Promotes lipid breakdown and inhibits triglyceride synthesis
Inhibits hepatic protein synthesis

Front 75

1.BETA CELLS ARE INSULIN INDUCE
2.ALPHA CELLS
GLUCAGON (ANTAGONIZE INSULIN) INCREASES

Back 75

1.GLYCOGEN SYNTHESIS IN MUSCLE (DECREASE BLOOD GLUCOSE)
2.BLOOD GLUCOSE

Front 76

1BLOOD GLUCOSE TOO HIGH
2.BLOOD GLUCOSE TOO LOW

Back 76

1.BETA CELLS MAKE INSULIN------------ GLUCOSE TO GLYCOGEN
2.ALPHA CELLS MAKE GLUCAGON---- GLYCOGEN TO GLUCOSE

Front 77

Diabetes mellitus Effects

Back 77

Increase in serum glucose levels
Excretion of glucose and water in urine
Glucose does not enter cells, so adipose becomes major energy source
In severe cases, acidic metabolites formed during fat metabolism may lower blood pH to dangerous levels
Type I Loss of Beta cells in pancreas. Decreases insulin production and secretion
Type II Defective signal reception in insulin pathway.
Both lead to hyperglycemia (high blood glucose level)

Front 78

Adrenal Medulla
Secretes Epinephrine and Norepinephrine

Back 78

Fight or flight response
↑ cardiovascular activity
↑ vasoconstriction
↑ glycolysis (glycogen breakdown to glucose)
↑ hyperglycemia
↑ lipolysis

Front 79

1.(ZG) Glomerulosa
2.ZF) Fasciculata
3.(ZR) Reticularis

Back 79

1.Cells are arranged in circular pattern and the hole in the middle is the blood vessel.
2.thickest of the three, they are columns of cells. They have a lot of droplets in them. These are lipid droplets used to produce hormones. This section is the most active section.
3.means reticular like spider web, they zig zag. They have some granules, but not as many as in the fasciculata.

Front 80

Zona Glomerulosa
Aldosterone

Back 80

Maintains Na+ and K+ concentrations in the blood by effecting their reabsorption in the:
- kidney tubules
- intestine
- sweat and salivary glands

Actions
- increase Na+ reabsorption
- decrease K+ reabsorption

Front 81

Zona Fasciculata
Glucocorticoids

Back 81

cortisol, cortisone and corticosterone
Stress response (glucose metabolism, immune function)
↑ blood glucose by stimulating gluconeogenesis and inhibiting glucose uptake
↑blood amino acids by stimulating protein degradation
↑ blood fatty acids by stimulating lipolysis
↓ immune response (non-adaptive)
Weak Androgens (a little bit)
EXP: androstenedione

Front 82

Pineal Gland or Epiphysis secretes
Function

Back 82

melatonin
Melatonin
Regulates sleep / wake cycles
Inhibits release of gonadotropins FSH and LH, thereby regulation reproductive cycles, particularly in females