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72 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Where is secreted?
What does it do?
PROLACTIN
Secreted by the adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary)

Stimulates the production of milk during lactation
Where is secreted?
What does it do?
ACTH
Adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary)

Stimulates the adrenal cortex to release cortisol
Where is secreted?
What does it do?
TSH
Adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary)

Stimulates the thyroid to release its hormones (Thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3))
Where is secreted?
What does it do?
FSH
Adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary)

Follicle-stimulating hormone
In females- stimulates growth of the ovarian follicles and estrogen production
In males- spermatogenesis
Where is secreted?
What does it do?
LH
Adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary)

Luteinizing hormone
In females- Maturation of the ovum and ovulation
In males- testosterone secretion
Where is it secreted?
What does it do?
ADH
Secreted in the hypothalamus, stored and released from the Neurohypophysis (posterior pituitary)

Anti-diuretic hormone- increases water reabsorption in the distal tubules and collecting ducts (aka vasopressin)
Where is it secreted?
What does it do?
OT
Neurohypophysis (posterior pituitary gland)

Oxytocin; milk let-down and uterus contractions during and after labor
Where is it secreted?
What does it do?
GH
Adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary gland)

growth hormone; stimulates protein synthesis
Where is it secreted?
What does it do?
INSULIN
Pancreas (beta-cells of the Islets of Langerhans)

Transports glucose into the cell (key)
Hence, lowers blood glucose levels
Where is it secreted?
What does it do?
GLUCAGON
Pancreas (alpha cells of the Islets of Langerhans)

Glycogenolysis in the liver
Hence, increases blood glucose level
Where is it secreted?
What does it do?
PTH
Parathyroid gland

Parathyroid hormone; increases blood calcium level by stimulating bone demineralization (stimulation of osteoclasts) and increasing absorption of Ca++ in the digestive tract and kidney
Where is it secreted?
What does it do?
CALCITONIN
Parafollicular cells of Thyroid gland

Inhibits osteoclast activity
Where is it secreted?
What does it do?
Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3)
thyroid gland

increases metabolic rate in all cells
Where is it secreted?
What does it do?
ALDOSTERONE
Adrenal cortex

increases sodium and water reabsorption in the kidney
Where is it secreted?
What does it do?
CORTISOL
Adrenal cortex (zona fasciculata)

Anti-inflammatory and decreases immune response; catabolic effect on tissues, stress response
Where is it secreted?
What does it do?
NOREPINEPHRINE
Adrenal medulla

Vasoconstriction
Where is it secreted?
What does it do?
EPINEPHRINE
Adrenal medulla

Stress response
Visceral and cutaneous vasoconstriction
Vasodilation in smooth muscle
Increases rate and force of contraction of heart
Bronchodilation
What are the two antagonist hormones that act on blood calcium levels?
PTH and Calcitonin (PTH stimulates osteoclasts to perform bone resorption (increase blood Ca++) and calcitonin inhibits their action (decreases blood Ca++))
What is the most common cause of endocrine disorders?
Adenomas
Give an example of an endocrine disorder caused by target receptor insensitivity
Type II diabetes mellitus
Is insulin required for transport of glucose to the brain cells or in intestinal absorption? What about skeletal muscle?
No
Exercising skeletal muscle can utilize glucose without proportionate levels of insulin (so excessive exercise could result in hypoglycemia)
Another name for juvenile diabetes? What is the problem in this case?
Type I diabetes mellitus (IDDM)

Autoimmune disease that destroys the beta cells in the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas that secrete insulin (therefore, there is an insulin deficit)
Another name for noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus? What is the problem here?
Type 2 diabetes melliutus; mature onset

decreased beta cell production of insulin in pancreas, increased resistance by the body cells to insulin, or increased production of glucose by the liver (or a combination of these factors)
What is metabolic syndrome? Who does it effect?
A complex of several pathophysiological changes marked by obesity, cardiovascular changes, and significant insulin resistance due to large amounts of adipose tissue.

Occuring in adolescents and young adults
Another name for a diabetic coma
DKA (diabetic ketoacidosis)
What are drugs designed for type 2 diabetes designed to do (3 examples)
- stimulate the beta cells in the islets of Langerhans to secrete insulin
- decrease insulin resistance
- decrease hepatic glucose production (decrease glucagon)
**some newer drugs increase tissue sensitivity to insulin, but have harsher side effects
Why is insulin injected instead of ingested?
It is a protein and can be degraded by the digestive system
What causes hypoglycemia? Which type is it most commonly found in?
An increase in insulin (TOO MUCH) that causes a sudden depletion of glucose from the blood;
Type 1
What do neurons use as an energy source? Therefore, what acute complication quickly effects the nervous system?
Glucose (neurons cannot use fats of proteins as an energy source) ; hypoglycemia
What do neurons use as an energy source? Therefore, which acute complication quickly effects the nervous system? What are the signs?
Glucose ; hypoglycemia (signs include:

Impaired neurologic function:
poor concentration, slurred speech, lack of coordination, and staggering gait (oftentimes appear drunk))
-and-
stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system:
increased pulse,
anxiety/ tremors
pale
moist skin
** if left untreated, loss of consciouness, seizures, and death
Infection or stress increases the demand of ______ in the body (why?) This is a major contributing factor in ______.
Insulin (cell metabolic needs will increase to fight infection, hence, demand for intracellular glucose will increase); HHNK
Dehydration associated with hyperglycemia will cause (oliguria / polyuria). Dehydration associated with ketoacidosis will cause (oliguria / polyuria)
polyuria (due to glucosuria and associated water and electrolyte loss due to increased osmotic pressure); oliguria (body's attempt to hold on to water to to more severe dehydration)
Treatment for ketoacidosis
Insulin and bicarbonate administration
what are three factors that could cause an excessive hormone levels?
- tumor that over-secretes a hormone (paraneoplastic syndrome)
- congenital defect
- failure of the liver or kidney to excrete hormones
What are some factors that could cause a deficit of a hormone?
Tumor produces too little hormone.
Inadequate tissue receptors present
Antagonistic hormone production is increased.
Malnutrition
Atrophy, surgical removal of gland
Congenital deficit
Kussmaul's respirations are deep respirations associated with ________________. What might the breath smell like?
ketoacidosis ; acetone (a sweet, fruity smell)
Give an example of a positive feedback system. What type of feedback is most commonly used to maintain homeostasis?
Oxytocin secretion by the neurohypophysis

Negative feedback
Which type of muscle depends on blood calcium levels for contraction?
Cardiac muscle (not skeletal- it has calcium reserve in the sarcoplasmic reticulum)
What does hypocalemia cause? What might cause hypocalemia
-Weakened heart contractions
-excitability of nerves (which DOES effect skeletal muscle--> tetany)

Hypoparathyroidism would cause hypocalcemia
What does hyperparathyroidism cause?
-hypercalcemia (can make a person more susceptible to urolithiasis)
-increased resorption of bone (leading to osteoprosis)
What vitamin is required for calcium absorption?
Vitamin D
What is the problem in diabetes insipidus? Causes?
Deficit of ADH
-Adenoma
- Brain injury that effects the neurohypophysis
- Nephrogenic (kidney tubules do not respond to ADH)
The common factor with diabetes insipidus and mellitus is _____________. What is treatment for diabete inspidus?
polyuria and polydipsia ; replacement of ADH (vasopressin)
what is the problem in inappropriare ADH syndrome? What could cause it? Treatment?
Excessive ADH (excessive water retention)

- temporary causes such as stress
- ectopic such as a tumor

Treatment includes diuretics
Enlargement of the thyroid gland
Goiter
Hypothyroid condition in regions with low iodine levels in soil and food
Endemic goiter (without iodine, T3 and T4 cannot be synthesized, which leads to hypertrophy and hyperplasia because TSH still produced)
Foods that contain elements to block the synthesis of T3 and T4
Goitrogens
Goiter condition associated with hyperactivity of the thyroid gland
Toxic goiter (assoc with Grave's disease)
Presence of protruding, staring eyes, decreased blink and eye movement
Exopthalmos
Intolerance to cold is a sign of (hypothyroidism /hyperthyroidism)
Hypothyroidism
A destructive autoimmune disorder that might cause hypothyroidism
Hashimoto's thyroiditis
A congenital defect that causes hypothyroidism
cretinism
Severe, untreated hypothyroidism can cause ____________, or thickening of the tongue and non-pitting edema in the face
Myxedema
Pheochromocytoma is a benign tumor in the __________gland. What does this cause?
adrenal (medulla)

tumor causes increased secretion of Epi, NEpi, and sometimes catecholamines- causes headache, heart palpations, sweating, increases anxiety
Excessive level of glucocorticoids;
What are the distinguished charcteristics?
Cushing syndrome ; moon face, buffalo hump, purple straie, hirsutism
fragile skin that may have red streaks as well as hirsutism
Cushing syndrome
Major causes of hypothyroidism
Hashimoto thyroiditis: autoimmune disorder (has antibodies against the enzyme that forms T3 and T4, therefore it is not produced)

Iodine deficiency (usually from diet)
What is a major difference between cretinism and dwarfism
Look similar, but cretinism can cause mental retardation
What is cretinism caused by?
Congenital hypothyroidism (usually due to iodine deficiency in mother during pregnancy)
What causes toxic goiter? Which disease is it associated with?
Asssociated with Grave's disease- autoantibodies produced elicit a TSH effect (while there is a negative feedback mechanism for TSH, there is none for the autoantibodies) Therefore, over-secretion occurs of T3/T4 and there is no STOP mechanism
What condition is exopthalamos associated with?
Hyperthyroidism
What occurs during fasting?
Decrease in insulin production

Increase in glucagon production (to stimulate glycogenolysis)
Measure of the ability of the beta cells to secrete insulin and the ability of insulin to lower the blood glucose
Oral glucose tolerance test
Hormone that stimulates glycogenolysis in response to low blood glucose levels
Glucagon
What is the difference between glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis?
Glycogenolysis is the process in which the hepatocytes convert glycogen to glucose (due to glucagon secretion; low blood glucose levels)

Gluconeogenesis is the production of glucose from noncarbohydrate molecules (can be performed by the liver in response to cortisol production)
Which process increases blood glucose levels, glycogenolysis or gluconeogenesis?
Both
What is the pathophysiology of ketoacidosis?
Gluconeogenesis
Aldosterone is secreted from where?
Zona glomerulosa of the adrenal cortex
Zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata and Zona reticularis are layers of what?
The adrenal cortex (from outer to inner)
Where is cortisol secreted from?
Zona fasciculata of the adrenal cortex
What stimulates the adrenal cortex to release its hormones? What stimulates the adrenal medulla to release its hormones?
Cortex- ACTH from anterior pituitary

Medulla- hypothalamus through SNS
What is this? What does it cause?
Pheochromocytoma (benign tumor in the adrenal medulla)

Causes increased secretion of Epi and NEpi (malignant hypertension. tachycardia, sweating, heart palpitations, constant anxiety)